Seed-borne Fungi Associated with Sesame Seeds Cultivated in Chad Republic

Hermann Djelassem Ngarbelem; Ibrahim Njimona; Elie Keuete Kamdoum; Signaboubo Serferbe; Sedric Gerryco Songmi; Natacha Ngamveng Nkotto; Gaston Tsopmbeng Noumbo

doi:doi:10.11648/j.jps.20261402.13

Research Article |

| Peer-Reviewed

Seed-borne Fungi Associated with Sesame Seeds Cultivated in Chad Republic

Hermann Djelassem Ngarbelem

, Ibrahim Njimona

, Elie Keuete Kamdoum^*

, Signaboubo Serferbe, Sedric Gerryco Songmi

, Natacha Ngamveng Nkotto

, Gaston Tsopmbeng Noumbo

Published in Journal of Plant Sciences (Volume 14, Issue 2)

Received: 4 March 2026 Accepted: 18 March 2026 Published: 16 April 2026

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Abstract

Sesame (Sesamum indicum L.) is an important oil seed crop in Chad, but its productivity is constrained by seed-borne fungal pathogens affecting seed quality, germination, and seedling establishment. This study examined the different seed-borne fungi associated with sesame varieties using two International Seed Testing Association (ISTA)-recommended methods: the blotter paper method and agar plate method. The results show that 22 fungal species were identified, with notable differences between the two methods. The blotter paper method detected 13 species, while the agar plate method revealed 22 species, with 3 375 isolates detected using the agar plate method compared to 1 070 isolates on blotter paper method. Using the blotter paper method, Alternaria sesami (13.28%), A. brassicicola (12.51%) and Macrophomina phaseolina (10.69%) were the most frequent species and Bipolaris spicifera (3.86%) and Nigrospora sphaerica (4.02%) were the least frequent. With the agar plate method, the most frequent species were A. sesami (16.92%), Aspergillus niger (12.57%) and Cercospora sesami (12.5%). Pestalotia guepini and Verticillium dahliae were the least frequent species, with respective frequencies of 0.41 and 0.61%. These results revealed a wide diversity of seed-borne fungi of sesame, highlighting the need to develop effective strategies to control these seed-borne fungi.

Published in	Journal of Plant Sciences (Volume 14, Issue 2)
DOI	10.11648/j.jps.20261402.13
Page(s)	93-103
Creative Commons	This is an Open Access article, distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, provided the original work is properly cited.
Copyright	Copyright © The Author(s), 2026. Published by Science Publishing Group

Keywords

Sesamum indicum, Seed-borne Fungi, Agar Plate Method, Blotter Paper Method, Chad

1. Introduction

Sesame (Sesamum indicum L.) is an herbaceous plant of the Pedaliaceae family, native to Africa

[1]

. Today, it is widely cultivated in several regions of the world, mainly in tropical and warm temperate regions for its edible seeds rich in protein (19.67-28.42%), fiber (8.23-31.12%), fat (48.02-87%), carbohydrates (3.43-5.37%)

[2]

, mineral salts (potassium, calcium, magnesium, iron and zinc), vitamins (B, and E)

[3]

and phytochemicals such as oxalates, tannins, phenols and flavonoids

[2]

. Its seeds contain higher oil content than most major oil crops such as soybean, rapeseed, sunflower and cotton, which has earned it the name “queen of oils”

[4]

. Globally, around 70% of sesame seed production is processed into flour and oil, while about 65% is used for oil extraction and 35% for direct food consumption

[5]

In 2023, sesame was cultivated in more than 75 countries, with global production estimated at 6.79 million tons, with 56% originated from Africa, 37% from Asia and 7% from the Americas

[6]

. In Chad, sesame is the third most produced oil seed crop in the country, with an output of 209,884 tons corresponding to more than 85 billion CFA francs in 2023

[6]

. Sesame cultivation in Chad is a source of income for farmers and helps to fight against malnutrition. This crop has expanded significantly across the Sahelian and Sudanian zones

[7]

Despite its socio-economic importance, sesame production in Chad is still low due to several biotic and abiotic constraints. Among the biotic constraints, seed-borne fungi are among the most important pathogens affecting sesame production, as they can be transmitted through seeds and significantly reduce germination and seedling vigour. They are responsible for numerous fungal diseases transmitted to plants through seeds. Several studies have reported the diversity of seed-borne fungi associated with sesame. In Burkina Faso,

[9]

identified 25 fungal species associated with sesame seeds, including Macrophomina phaseolina, Cercospora sesami, Corynespora cassiicola, Alternaria simsimii, Alternaria porri, Fusarium oxysporum, F. fujikuroi, F. equiseti, Colletotrichum capsici and C. gloeosporioides. Similarly, work by

[10]

, reported that seed-borne fungi such as Alternaria sesami, C. sesami, C. gloeosporioides, F. fujikuroi and M. phaseolina were associated with sesame cultivated in India. Those by

[11]

conducted in Pakistan, identified 36 species belonging to 10 genera in sesame seeds. These pathogens can significantly affect sesame production by reducing seed germination (30-61%)

[8, 12]

and cause a range of diseases including leaf spots, wilting, stem and root rot, leading to seedling mortality and disease transmission at later growth stages

[13]

. Seed-borne fungi pathogens may also induce physical alterations such as seed discolouration, wrinkling, reduced size, loss of luster or complete deterioration of the seed coat

[7]

However, despite the increasing importance of sesame cultivation in Chad, information on the diversity of seed-borne fungi associated with sesame seeds in the country remains limited. Therefore, seed health testing is essential to detect seed-borne fungal pathogens and ensure healthy crop establishment. The aim of this study was to investigate the diversity of seed-borne fungi associated with different sesame varieties. We believe that our results would help to provide empirical information on the most infested sesame varieties and possible measures to control the seed-borne fungi pathogens associated with sesame varieties and hence boost sesame production.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Collection of Sesame Seeds

Nine sesame varieties were collected in 2023 from the Chadian Institute of Agronomic Research for Development (ITRAD) in Bebedjia and from farmers in Mongo (Guera Province, Chad). For each variety, 500 g of seeds were collected, placed in sterile paper bags, properly labeled, and transported to the Life Science Laboratory of the Faculty of Sciences, University of Buea (Cameroon). The seeds were stored at 4°C in a refrigerator until laboratory analysis.

Table 1. Characteristics of seed varieties.

Name	Origin	Seed color	Growth cycle (days)	Yield (Kg/ha)
32-15	Burkina Faso	White	80-100	400-1000
DLS1	Chad	Cream	100-130	500-1000
Ker manne	Chad/Local	White	100-120	500-1000
Ker Ndaa	Chad/Local	White	110-135	600-1000
Guera Local	Chad/Local	Black	100-120	600-1200
Makaye	India	White	90-115	500-1100
Pachequeno sel	Chad	White	80-100	500-1000
S42 -Burkina	Burkina Faso	White	85-90	500-1200
S42 ITRAD	Chad	White	80-90	500-1200

2.2. Survey of Seed-borne Fungi

Sesame seed varieties were subjected to seed health testing following the standard blotter paper method and the agar plate method

[14]

. All laboratory manipulations were carried out under aseptic conditions to avoid contamination.

2.2.1. Disinfection of Sesame Seeds

The seeds were surface disinfected with 2% sodium hypochlorite solution for 5 minutes followed by three rinses with sterilized distilled water to remove traces of the disinfectant and placed on hydrophilic paper to absorb excess distilled water

[15]

2.2.2. Blotter Paper Method

Four hundred (400) disinfected seeds of each variety were sown aseptically in 90 mm Petri dishes containing three layers of blotting paper that was previously moistened with 6 mL of sterile distilled water, at a rate of 25 seeds per Petri dish. These dishes were incubated at 24˚C ± 2˚C for 7 days under alternating cycles of 12 hours of darkness and 12 hours of light provided by a white, fluorescent tube placed 40 cm above the Petri dishes

[16]

Fungal identification was based on colony morphology, color, growth pattern and microscopic characteristics of spores and mycelia observed under a stereo-binocular microscope. Confirmation of fungal species was carried out using standard fungal identification manuals and taxonomic keys

[17-19]

The frequency (F) of each fungus was determined from the percentage of the colonies of all the fungi developed as the following formula:

F (%) = \frac{Number of specific species isolated}{Total number of fungal species isolated}

×100

2.2.3. Agar Plate Method

Surface disinfected sesame seeds were placed at 10 seeds per Petri plate containing 20 mL of the Potato Dextrose Agar (PDA) and incubated at a temperature of 24 ± 2°C for 7 days. The fungi growing out from the seeds were examined based on the colony appearance and identification of spore was done as described under blotter method.

The experiment was arranged in a completely randomized design (CRD) with four replicates for each sesame variety.

2.3. Data Analysis

The data obtained were organized using Microsoft Excel and summarized as percentages for each sesame variety and detection method.

3. Results

3.1. Frequency of the Different Fungal Species Associated with Sesame Seeds

A total of 22 fungal species were detected on sesame seeds analyzed in this study. The frequency of fungal species varied depending on both the sesame variety and the detection method used (Tables 2 and 3). The blotter paper method allowed the detection of 13 species, whereas the agar plate method revealed 22 species. Overall, 4 445 fungal isolates were recorded across the different sesame varieties, including 1 070 isolates detected by the blotter paper method and 3 375 isolates detected by the agar plate method.

Table 2. Frequency (%) seed-borne fungi associated with sesame seed by blotter paper method.

Sesame varieties
Fungal specie	S42-ITRAD	S42-Burkina	Makaye	Pachequeno sel	3215
Alternaria brassicicola	9.23 (12)	10.27 (15)	31.91 (30)	18.05 (24)	13.6 (17)
Alternaria raphani	/	11.64 (17)	19.15 (18)	6.02 (8)	6.4 (8)
Alternaria sesami	15.38 (20)	10.27 (15)	0 (0)	27.07 (36)	19.2 (24)
Aspergillus flavus	9.23 (12)	4.79 (7)	8.51 (8)	9.02 (12)	8 (10)
Aspergillus niger	16.92 (22)	10.96 (16)	/	9.77 (13)	4 (5)
Bipolaris spicifera	/	6.85 (10)	/	3.01 (4)	/
Cercospora sesami	10.77 (14)	17.81 (26)	8.51 (8)	3.76 (5)	11.2 (14)
Fusarium fujikuroi	0 (0)	0 (0)	7.45 (7)	6.77 (9)	/
Fusarium oxysporum	18.46 (24)	5.48 (8)	/	/	16 (20)
Fusarium roseum	6.15 (8)	6.85 (10)	/	6.02 (8)	4.8 (6)
Macrophomina phaseolina	7.69 (10)	9.59 (14)	10.64 (10)	0.75 (1)	10.4 (13)
Nigrospora sphaerica	/	/	8.51 (8)	0 (0)	0 (0)
Fusarium equiseti	6.15 (8)	5.48 (8)	5.32 (5)	9.77 (13)	6.4 (8)
(Total number)	(130)	(146)	(94)	(133)	(125)

Sesame varieties
Fungal specie	DLS1	Keur manne	Keur ndaa	Guera Local	Mean (Total)
Alternaria brassicicola	3.05 (4)	0 (0)	13.43 (9)	9.84 (12)	12.15 (123)
Alternaria raphani	7.63 (10)	6.56 (8)	1.49 (1)	9.84 (12)	7.64 (82)
Alternaria sesami	18.32 (24)	9.84 (12)	10.45 (7)	9.02 (11)	13.28 (149)
Aspergillus flavus	6.87 (9)	/	/	7.38 (9)	5.98 (67)
Aspergillus niger	12.98 (17)	12.3 (15)	/	18.85 (23)	9.53 (111)
Bipolaris spicifera	7.63 (10)	17.21 (21)	/	/	3.86 (45)
Cercospora sesami	8.4 (11)	4.1 (5)	/	/	7.17 (83)
Fusarium fujikuroi	6.11 (8)	10.66 (13)	13.43 (9)	/	4.94 (46)
Fusarium oxysporum	7.63 (10)	13.11 (16)	10.45 (7)	8.2 (10)	8.81 (95)
Fusarium roseum	5.34 (7)	4.92 (6)	0 (0)	22.13 (27)	6.25 (72)
Macrophomina phaseolina	10.69 (14)	10.66 (13)	35.82 (24)	0 (0)	10.69 (99)
Nigrospora sphaerica	5.34 (7)	5.74 (7)	14.93 (10)	1.64 (2)	4.02 (34)
Fusarium equiseti	/	4.92 (6)	/	13.11 (16)	5.68 (64)
(Total number)	(131)	(122)	(67)	(122)	(1070)

Using the blotter paper method, Alternaria sesami was the most frequently detected species (13.28%), followed by A. brassicicola (12.51%) and Macrophomina phaseolina (10.69%). Bipolaris spicifera was the least frequent with a frequency of 3.86%, followed by Nigrospora sphaerica (4.02%). The S42 Burkina variety had the most isolates (146), followed by the Pachequeno sel variety (133) and the DLS1 variety (131). The Keur Ndaa variety had the smallest number of isolates (67). The Pachequeno sel variety was the most affected by a specific fungus, A. sesami, with a frequency of 27%. The species Fusarium oxysporum and Nigrospora sphaerica were absent from this variety. In the S42-ITRAD variety, the species A. raphani, B. spicifera, Fusarium fujikuroi and N. sphaerica were not observed in this sesame variety, while the species F. oxysporum (18.46%), Aspergillus niger (16.92%), A. sesami (15.38%) and Cercospora sesami (10.77%) were the most frequent. A. brassicicola (31.81%) was more frequent in the Makaye variety, but species such as A. sesami, A. niger, B. spicifera, F. oxysporum and F. roseum were absent. In the Pachequeno sel variety, the species A. sesami (27.07%) and A. brassicicola (18.05%) were the most frequent, compared to an absence (0%) of the species F. oxysporum, M. phaseolina and N. sesami in this variety. The Keur Ndaa variety showed a high frequency of M. phaseolina (35.82%), while the species A. flavus, A. niger, B. spicifera, C. sesami, F. roseum and Fusarium equiseti were not observed. F. roseum (22.73%) was the most frequent species in the Guera Local variety. Species such as B. spicifera, C. sesami, F. fujikuroi and M. phaseolina were not found.

Values outside the parentheses represent the frequency (%), whereas those in parentheses indicate the number of fungal isolates and / means that the fungal species was not observed.

On agar plate method (Table 3), the most frequent species were A. sesami (16.92%), Aspergillus niger (12.57%), C. sesami (12.5%) and F. fujikuroi (11.38%). The species Penicillium sp., Pestalotia guepini, Phoma sorghina and Verticillium dahliae were the least frequent species, with respective frequencies of 0.91, 0.41, 0.95 and 0.61%. The varieties with the highest number of isolates were Pachequeno sel (443), followed by Guera Local (441), S42-ITRAD, (408) and S42 Burkina (405). The Makaye variety had the lowest number of isolates (250), followed by the Keur Manne and Keur Ndaa varieties with 333 isolates each.

The S42-ITRAD and S42 Burkina varieties showed high frequencies of Alternaria sesami (18.38% and 18.52%), but no Pestalotia guepini or Verticillium dahliae were found. Colletotrichum gloeosporioides, Nigrospora sphaerica, Penicillium sp., Pyricularia guepini, Phoma sorghina and V. dahliae were not found in the Makaye variety. In the same variety, A. sesami (20.4%), Cercospora sesami (14%) and Fusarium fujikuroi (17.6%) were more frequently detected. The DLS1 variety showed a high frequency of A. sesami (23.76%) and C. sesami (9.49%), while Penicillium sp., P. guepini and Fusarium equiseti were not observed. The species F. oxysporum, Nigrospora sphaerica, Penicillium sp., P. guepini, P. sorghina and Rhizopus sp. were absent in the Guera Local variety; on the other hand, the species C. sesami (19.51%) and Aspergillus niger (17.67%) were the most frequent. Species such as N. sesami, Penicillium sp. P. guepini, P. sorghina, F. equiseti, Rhizopus sp. and V. dahliae were absent in the Keur Manne and Keur Ndaa varieties.

Table 3. Frequency (%) seed-borne fungi associated with sesame seed by agar plate method.

Sesame varieties
Fungal specie	S42-ITRAD	S42-Burkina	Makaye	Pachequeno sel	3215
Alternaria brassicicola	4.41 (18)	6.17 (25)	8.4 (21)	4.97 (22)	6.15 (23)
Alternaria raphani	5.39 (22)	4.94 (20)	0 (0)	4.51 (20)	5.35 (20)
Alternaria sesami	18.38 (75)	18.52 (75)	20.4 (51)	19.41 (86)	16.84 (63)
Aspergillus flavus	2.94 (12)	1.73 (7)	3.2 (8)	2.71 (12)	2.67 (10)
Aspergillus niger	13.97 (57)	10.86 (44)	5.2 (13)	18.51 (82)	10.43 (39)
Bipolaris spicifera	2.7 (11)	3.46 (14)	2.8 (7)	2.03 (9)	2.67 (10)
Cercospora sesami	8.33 (34)	9.14 (37)	14 (35)	7.9 (35)	10.43 (39)
Cladosporium herbarum	1.96 (8)	2.72 (11)	2.8 (7)	2.26 (10)	2.94 (11)
Colletotrichum gloeosporioides	2.45 (10)	0.99 (4)	/	/	/
Curvularia lunata	2.94 (12)	2.22 (9)	2.8 (7)	1.35 (6)	2.41 (9)
Fusarium fujikuroi	10.29 (42)	10.86 (44)	17.6 (44)	9.71 (43)	9.36 (35)
Fusarium oxysporum	6.86 (28)	7.65 (31)	6 (15)	6.77 (30)	8.56 (32)
Fusarium roseum	3.92 (16)	3.95 (16)	5.2 (13)	5.42 (24)	5.61 (21)
Macrophomina phaseolina	2.7 (11)	2.22 (9)	3.2 (8)	2.03 (9)	3.21 (12)
Nigrospora sphaerica	1.47 (6)	1.73 (7)	/	1.81 (8)	2.41 (9)
Penicillium sp.	2.45 (10)	2.22 (9)	/	/	3.48 (13)
Pestalotia guepini	/	/	/	1.81 (8)	1.87 (7)
Phoma sorghina	1.72 (7)	2.96 (12)	/	2.03 (9)	/
Fusarium equiseti	2.7 (11)	1.98 (8)	4 (10)	2.48 (11)	2.94 (11)
Rhizopus sp.	2.21 (9)	2.96 (12)	2 (5)	3.39 (15)	/
Trichoderma harzianum	2.21 (9)	2.72 (11)	2.4 (6)	0.9 (4)	2.67 (10)
Verticillium dahliae	/	/	/	/	/
(Total number)	(408)	(405)	(250)	(443)	(374)

Sesame varieties
Fungal specie	DLS1	Keur manne	Keur ndaa	Guera Local	Mean (Total)
Alternaria brassicicola	5.93 (23)	5.71 (19)	5.41 (18)	10.43 (46)	6.4 (215)
Alternaria raphani	5.41 (21)	6.01 (20)	6.91 (23)	4.99 (22)	4.83 (168)
Alternaria sesami	23.71 (92)	12.61 (42)	7.21 (24)	15.19 (67)	16.92 (575)
Aspergillus flavus	2.32 (9)	2.7 (9)	4.5 (15)	2.04 (9)	2.76 (91)
Aspergillus niger	12.11 (47)	11.71 (39)	12.61 (42)	17.69 (78)	12.57 (441)
Bipolaris spicifera	3.87 (15)	2.1 (7)	3.3 (11)	2.04 (9)	2.77 (93)
Cercospora sesami	9.54 (37)	15.92 (53)	17.72 (59)	19.5 (86)	12.5 (415)
Cladosporium herbarum	3.87 (15)	3.9 (13)	3.3 (11)	0.23 (1)	2.66 (87)
Colletotrichum gloeosporioides	3.35 (13)	2.4 (8)	2.4 (8)	1.81 (8)	1.49 (51)
Curvularia lunata	1.29 (5)	2.7 (9)	2.4 (8)	1.36 (6)	2.16 (71)
Fusarium fujikuroi	11.6 (45)	10.81 (36)	12.01 (40)	10.2 (45)	11.38 (374)
Fusarium oxysporum	7.47 (29)	12.31 (41)	11.71 (39)	/	7.48 (245)
Fusarium roseum	/	3.6 (12)	6.01 (20)	4.31 (19)	4.22 (141)
Macrophomina phaseolina	1.8 (7)	2.4 (8)	2.4 (8)	2.27 (10)	2.47 (82)
Nigrospora sphaerica	2.06 (8)	/	/	/	1.05 (38)
Penicillium sp.	/	/	/	/	0.91 (32)
Pestalotia guepini	/	/	/	/	0.41 (15)
Phoma sorghina	1.8 (7)	/	/	/	0.95 (35)
Fusarium equiseti	/	/	/	2.72 (12)	1.87 (63)
Rhizopus sp.	/	2.4 (8)	/	/	1.44 (49)
Trichoderma harzianum	1.8 (7)	2.7 (9)	2.1 (7)	1.81 (8)	2.15 (71)
Verticillium dahliae	2.06 (8)	/	/	3.4 (15)	0.61 (23)
(Total number)	(388)	(333)	(333)	(441)	(3375)

Values outside the parentheses represent the frequency (%), whereas those in parentheses indicate the number of fungal isolates and / means that the fungal species was not observed.

3.2. Description of the Different Fungal Species Associated with Sesame Seeds

3.2.1. Alternaria spp.

Alternaria sesami, after 7 days of incubation on PDA medium, colonies of A. sesami showed a grayish mycelium with slightly irregular margins and a cottony texture. Under the microscope, the hyphae appear septate, thick, and light brown, forming a dense network. The conidiophores are straight or slightly flexuous, unbranched, pale brown to brown in color. The conidia are oblong to ellipsoid, pale brown in color, with 3 to 7 well-marked transverse septa, arranged in short chains.

A 7-day-old pure culture of Alternaria brassicicola on PDA culture medium shows dark brown mycelium with a compact cottony texture. The margins are sharp and slightly wavy. Under a microscope, the hyphae are thick, septate, and light brown, forming radial branches. The conidiophores are straight or slightly curved and dark brown in color. The conidia are oblong to ovoid, brown, with 3 to 8 transverse septa often forming short chains.

Alternaria raphani pure culture aged 7 days on PDA culture medium shows grayish mycelium with irregular margins and a fluffy texture. Under the microscope, the hyphae are thick, septate, and light brown. The conidiophores, straight or slightly curved, are unbranched. The conidia are ovoid to cylindrical, dark brown, with 3 to 6 well-marked transverse septa, and are slightly tapered at one end.

3.2.2. Bipolaris spicifera

B. spicifera on PDA culture medium at 7 days shows grayish colonies with sharp, wavy margins. Under the microscope, the hyphae are septate, slightly flexuous, and pale brown in color. The conidiophores, which are straight or slightly curved, bear cylindrical conidia. The conidia are brown, curved, and have 3 to 7 transverse septa.

3.2.3. Cercospora sesami

A 7-day-old pure culture of C. sesami on PDA culture medium shows black colonies with a slightly fibrous texture. Under the microscope, the hyphae are irregularly septate, thick, and light brown. The sporophores, produced in clusters, are hyaline at the tip, light brown at the base, straight, and unbranched. The spores are narrow, hyaline to light yellow, broad at the base, tapering toward the apex, and have 3 to 6 transverse septa.

3.2.4. Cladosporium herbarum

On PDA culture medium, after 7 days C. herbarum forms green to dark brown colonies with a fibrous texture and irregular margins. Under the microscope, the hyphae are septate, thin, and slightly brownish. The conidiophores are branched. The conidia are dark brown and ovoid in shape.

3.2.5. Curvularia lunata

Colonies of C. lunata grown on PDA for 7 days formed blackish colonies with a cottony texture. Under the microscope, the hyphae are thick, septate, and brown. The conidiophores are slightly flexuous. The conidia are light to dark brown, curved, and have 3 to 5 transverse septa.

3.2.6. Phoma sorghina

A 7-day-old pure culture of P. sorghina on PDA medium shows cottony colonies that are white to slightly pinkish on the front, with clear concentric rings visible on the back and orange areas near the center. Under a microscope, the hyphae are septate, thin, and hyaline to slightly pigmented, often organized in dense networks. Dark, rounded to oval pycnidia form at maturity and exude a mucoid mass containing numerous conidia. The conidia, released in viscous masses, are non-septate, ellipsoid to oblong, and hyaline.

3.2.7. Macrophomina phaseolina

M. phaseolina aged 7 days on PDA culture medium shows dense, black colonies with a compact texture and the appearance of abundant microsclerotia. Under the microscope, the hyphae are thick, brown, and septate, forming a dense network. The microsclerotia are globular to irregular. These dark structures form mainly on the lateral hyphae, giving the colony a granular texture.

3.2.8. Colletotrichum gloeosporioides

A 7-day-old pure culture of C. gloeosporioides on PDA culture medium shows dense, grayish colonies with a felt-like texture at the edges. Under the microscope, the hyphae are septate, thin, and hyaline. The conidiophores are short and slightly branched. The conidia are hyaline, fusiform, and slightly curved.

3.2.9. Nigrospora sphaerica

After 7 days on PDA medium, N. sphaerica produced an intense black mycelium with a fibrous texture on the surface. Under the microscope, the hyphae are thick, septate, and dark brown, forming a dense network. The conidiophores are short and unbranched. The conidia are globular to ovoid, blackish, with thick walls. These conidia develop singly at the tips of the conidiophores.

3.2.10. Pestalotia guepini

P. guepini at 7 days on PDA culture medium shows colonies that are grayish in the center and white at the edges, with a felt-like texture. Under the microscope, the hyphae are septate, slightly thick, and light brown. The conidiophores are short and sparsely branched. The conidia are fusiform, brownish, with 3 to 5 well-marked transverse septa and apical appendages.

3.2.11. Trichoderma harzianum

A 7-day-old pure culture of T. harzianum on PDA medium initially exhibits white colonies, which become intense green with a dense, slightly velvety texture. Under the microscope, the hyphae are hyaline, septate, and thin. The conidiophores are highly branched. The conidia are small, ovoid to subglobular, hyaline to pale green.

3.2.12. Verticillium dahliae

V. dahliae 9 days old on PDA culture medium shows white to dark yellow colonies, often streaked in the center, with a fibrous texture and wavy margins. Under the microscope, the hyphae are thin, septate, and hyaline, forming dense mycelial strands. The conidiophore whorls appear in unbranched crowns of 3 to 6. The conidia are elongated, ellipsoid, hyaline, smooth, grouped in small whitish clusters on the surface of the mycelium.

3.2.13. Fusarium spp.

A 7-day-old pure culture of Fusarium equiseti on PDA culture medium shows dense, gray to brown colonies with a compact texture. Under the microscope, the hyphae are thick, brown, and septate, with dense growth. The microsclerotia are globular to irregular. They appear as well-differentiated dark structures on the main hyphae.

A 7-day-old pure culture of Fusarium fujikuroi on PDA medium initially forms white colonies, which gradually turn pinkish. The texture is fibrous with well-defined margins. Under the microscope, the hyphae are septate, hyaline, and thick. The macroconidia are slightly curved, hyaline, with 3 to 5 transverse septa. The microconidia are abundant, ovoid, and hyaline.

On PDA culture medium, Fusarium oxysporum at 7 days reveals white colonies in the center with a pale pink coloration at the periphery. Under the microscope, the hyphae are septate, hyaline, and slightly thick. The macroconidia are slightly curved, hyaline, with 3 to 5 distinct transverse septa. The microconidia are ovoid to ellipsoid and often form in small clusters on short conidiophores.

On PDA culture medium at 7 days, Fusarium roseum shows fast-growing colonies, salmon pink in color with radial white streaks. The texture is velvety in the center and fibrous at the edges. Under the microscope, the hyphae are hyaline, septate, and slightly thick. The macroconidia are hyaline, slightly curved, and have 3 to 5 distinct septa. The microconidia are ovoid, hyaline, and form on short, simple conidiophores.

3.2.14. Aspergillus spp.

A 7-day-old pure culture of Aspergillus flavus on PDA culture medium shows dense, fast-growing colonies that are yellow to green in color with a powdery texture. Under the microscope, the hyphae are hyaline, thick, and septate. The conidiophores are erect and unbranched. The conidial heads are radiate and covered with spherical, hyaline to pale yellow conidia.

A 7-day-old pure culture of Aspergillus niger on PDA medium shows fast-growing, black colonies with a fluffy texture at the edges and a powdery texture in the center. Under a microscope, the hyphae are hyaline, septate, and thick. The conidiophores are straight and unbranched. The conidial heads appear globular, compact, and covered with dark brown spherical conidia.

3.2.15. Penicillium sp.

Penicillium sp. on PDA culture medium at 7 days shows dense, gray-green to blue-green colonies with a velvety texture and sharp margins. Under the microscope, the hyphae are thin, septate, and hyaline, with short lateral branches. The conidiophores grow in groups of 4 to 6, are erect and unbranched, and bear an apical phialide. The conidia are round to slightly ellipsoid, smooth, hyaline to pale green, arranged in loose chains at the top of the phialides.

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Figure 1. Macroscopic and microscopic characteristics of selected seed-borne fungi isolated from sesame seeds. (A) Seven-day-old mycelium; (B) Conidiophores and conidia (40×). 1: Alternaria sesami; 2: Alternaria brassicicola; 3: Alternaria raphani; 4: Cercospora sesami; 5: Cladosporium herbarum; 6: Curvularia lunata; 7: Phoma sorghina; 8: Colletotrichum gloeosporioides; 9: Pestalotia guepini; 10: Macrophomina phaseolina; 11: Fusarium fujikuroi; 12: Fusarium oxysporum.

4. Discussion

This study revealed that sesame seeds are colonized by a considerable diversity of seed-borne fungi, including both pathogenic and saprophytic species. In total, 22 fungal species were identified, among which Alternaria sesami, A. brassicicola, Cercospora sesami, Fusarium oxysporum, and Macrophomina phaseolina were the most frequently isolated. A comparable diversity was reported by

[9]

in Burkina Faso, where 25 fungal species associated with sesame plants and seeds were identified. Similarly,

[22]

reported in India that M. phaseolina and A. sesami are among the main fungi associated with sesame seeds. These findings suggest that the composition of the fungal flora associated with sesame seeds is relatively similar across different production areas.

These fungi thrive on sesame seeds, which provide a favorable substrate for their colonization, while seed quality and post-harvest conditions are negatively affected by their presence. Fungi belonging to the genera Aspergillus, Fusarium, Alternaria, and Penicillium are commonly associated with seeds, with pre-harvest contamination originating from soil-borne or airborne inoculum, and post-harvest proliferation promoted by inadequate drying and storage conditions

[9]

. The hot and humid climate of Chad, combined with traditional storage practices, facilitates fungal growth and seed deterioration

[20, 21]

Our results are also consistent with those reported by

[13]

, who indicated that Fusarium spp., Macrophomina phaseolina, and Alternaria sesami are among the most dominant seed-borne fungi of sesame in Burkina Faso. Similarly,

[22]

reported that M. phaseolina and A. sesami are commonly associated with sesame seeds in India. Likewise,

[11]

identified 36 species belonging to 10 genera in sesame seeds from Pakistan.

The pathogenic species A. sesami, C. sesami, F. oxysporum, and M. phaseolina are known to inhibit germination, reduce seedling vigor, and lead to yield losses. The high frequency of A. sesami (27.56%) observed in the Pachequeno sel variety is similar to that reported by

[10]

, who also noted its high prevalence on Indian sesame seeds and its significant negative impact on seed germination and seedling vigor. C. sesami, the causal agent of Cercospora leaf spot, was detected at a frequency of 19.5% in the Guera Local variety, which is comparable to the findings of

[13]

, who reported a prevalence of 73.61% in sesame seeds from Burkina Faso. Macrophomina phaseolina was present at 42.9% in the Keur Ndaa variety, which is consistent with

[23]

, who reported that this fungus is responsible for root and stem rot, causing yield losses ranging from 5% to 100%. The frequency of Fusarium roseum (22.13%) observed in the Guera Local variety is also comparable to the results reported by

[9]

. Seed-borne fungal infections significantly reduce sesame seed germination and seedling vigor by altering the physiological quality of the seeds

[7]

. These findings confirm that these dominant species are well known to compromise seed quality and germination capacity.

A significant variation in fungal profiles was observed depending on the sesame variety and the detection method. The Makaye and Pachequeno sel varieties exhibited greater fungal diversity than the Keur Manne and Keur Ndaa varieties. These results are similar to those reported by

[24, 26]

, who demonstrated that seed coat thickness or the phenolic compound content of seeds can influence susceptibility to fungal infection. Such genetic variability may explain the differences observed among the studied varieties.

Thirteen species were identified using the blotter paper method, whereas 22 species were identified on PDA medium, which, due to its nutrient richness, promotes the growth of slow-developing fungi

[25]

. These observations are consistent with those reported by

[22]

, who emphasized that nutrient-rich PDA medium allows better development of certain fungal species associated with sesame seeds that are difficult to detect using the blotter paper method.

The presence of fungi such as Aspergillus niger, A. flavus, and Penicillium is likely related to inadequate drying or storage conditions, particularly during periods of high humidity

[20]

. These results are consistent with the observations of

[26]

, who identified Aspergillus niger, Penicillium, and Rhizopus on sesame seeds in India.

Co-infection, defined as the simultaneous presence of multiple pathogenic fungi within the same host, is a common feature in plant pathosystems and plays a key role in disease dynamics

[27]

. In seeds, the coexistence of several fungal species can lead to complex interactions, including synergistic, competitive, or antagonistic effects, which may influence pathogen transmission, germination, and seedling vigor

[28]

. Studies have shown that multiple infections often result in more severe symptoms compared with single infections

[29]

. In sesame, the simultaneous presence of genera such as Fusarium, Alternaria, and Aspergillus therefore represents a major risk factor for seed health

[30-32]

. To our knowledge, this study represents the first detailed analysis of the diversity of seed-borne fungi associated with sesame seeds in Chad. It contributes to filling the existing knowledge gap regarding seed health in this country and provides a scientific basis for the development of phytosanitary management strategies adapted to local production systems.

5. Conclusion

This study highlighted the diversity of seed-borne fungi of sesame cultivated in Chad. This diversity and distribution vary depending on sesame varieties and isolation methods. Some varieties, such as S42-ITRAD and S42-Burkina, appear less susceptible to fungal contamination, while others are more susceptible to fungal contamination. The notable presence of storage fungi (Aspergillus, Penicillium) underscores the need to improve drying and storage practices. These findings provide essential guidance for varietal selection, integrated disease management, and improved seed health in the context of agricultural intensification.

Abbreviations

CRD	Completely Randomized Design
F	Frequency of Each Fungus
IMPM	Institute of Medical Research and Medicinal Plants Studies
ITRAD	Chadian Institute of Agronomic Research for Development
PDA	Potato Dextrose Agar
URBOA	Research Unit of Applied Botany

Author Contributions

Hermann Djelassem Ngarbelem: Investigation, Writing – original draft

Ibrahim Njimona: Writing – review & editing

Elie Keuete Kamdoum: Data curation, Methodology

Signaboubo Serferbe: Formal analysis, Investigation

Sedric Gerryco Songmi: Formal analysis

Natacha Ngamveng Nkotto: Data curation

Gaston Tsopmbeng Noumbo: Conceptualization, Supervision

Acknowledgments

The authors are grateful to Research Unit of Applied Botany (URBOA) of the University of Dschang, Cameroon, and Life Science Laboratory of the University of Buea, Cameroon for laboratory facilities, and the Chadian Institute of Agronomic Research for Development (ITRAD), Ndjamena, Bébédjia center for the provision of sesame seeds.

Data Availability Statement

The data that support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

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Ngarbelem, H. D., Njimona, I., Kamdoum, E. K., Serferbe, S., Songmi, S. G., et al. (2026). Seed-borne Fungi Associated with Sesame Seeds Cultivated in Chad Republic. Journal of Plant Sciences, 14(2), 93-103. https://doi.org/10.11648/j.jps.20261402.13

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ACS Style

Ngarbelem, H. D.; Njimona, I.; Kamdoum, E. K.; Serferbe, S.; Songmi, S. G., et al. Seed-borne Fungi Associated with Sesame Seeds Cultivated in Chad Republic. J. Plant Sci. 2026, 14(2), 93-103. doi: 10.11648/j.jps.20261402.13

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AMA Style

Ngarbelem HD, Njimona I, Kamdoum EK, Serferbe S, Songmi SG, et al. Seed-borne Fungi Associated with Sesame Seeds Cultivated in Chad Republic. J Plant Sci. 2026;14(2):93-103. doi: 10.11648/j.jps.20261402.13

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@article{10.11648/j.jps.20261402.13,
  author = {Hermann Djelassem Ngarbelem and Ibrahim Njimona and Elie Keuete Kamdoum and Signaboubo Serferbe and Sedric Gerryco Songmi and Natacha Ngamveng Nkotto and Gaston Tsopmbeng Noumbo},
  title = {Seed-borne Fungi Associated with Sesame Seeds Cultivated in Chad Republic},
  journal = {Journal of Plant Sciences},
  volume = {14},
  number = {2},
  pages = {93-103},
  doi = {10.11648/j.jps.20261402.13},
  url = {https://doi.org/10.11648/j.jps.20261402.13},
  eprint = {https://article.sciencepublishinggroup.com/pdf/10.11648.j.jps.20261402.13},
  abstract = {Sesame (Sesamum indicum L.) is an important oil seed crop in Chad, but its productivity is constrained by seed-borne fungal pathogens affecting seed quality, germination, and seedling establishment. This study examined the different seed-borne fungi associated with sesame varieties using two International Seed Testing Association (ISTA)-recommended methods: the blotter paper method and agar plate method. The results show that 22 fungal species were identified, with notable differences between the two methods. The blotter paper method detected 13 species, while the agar plate method revealed 22 species, with 3 375 isolates detected using the agar plate method compared to 1 070 isolates on blotter paper method. Using the blotter paper method, Alternaria sesami (13.28%), A. brassicicola (12.51%) and Macrophomina phaseolina (10.69%) were the most frequent species and Bipolaris spicifera (3.86%) and Nigrospora sphaerica (4.02%) were the least frequent. With the agar plate method, the most frequent species were A. sesami (16.92%), Aspergillus niger (12.57%) and Cercospora sesami (12.5%). Pestalotia guepini and Verticillium dahliae were the least frequent species, with respective frequencies of 0.41 and 0.61%. These results revealed a wide diversity of seed-borne fungi of sesame, highlighting the need to develop effective strategies to control these seed-borne fungi.},
 year = {2026}
}

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TY  - JOUR
T1  - Seed-borne Fungi Associated with Sesame Seeds Cultivated in Chad Republic
AU  - Hermann Djelassem Ngarbelem
AU  - Ibrahim Njimona
AU  - Elie Keuete Kamdoum
AU  - Signaboubo Serferbe
AU  - Sedric Gerryco Songmi
AU  - Natacha Ngamveng Nkotto
AU  - Gaston Tsopmbeng Noumbo
Y1  - 2026/04/16
PY  - 2026
N1  - https://doi.org/10.11648/j.jps.20261402.13
DO  - 10.11648/j.jps.20261402.13
T2  - Journal of Plant Sciences
JF  - Journal of Plant Sciences
JO  - Journal of Plant Sciences
SP  - 93
EP  - 103
PB  - Science Publishing Group
SN  - 2331-0731
UR  - https://doi.org/10.11648/j.jps.20261402.13
AB  - Sesame (Sesamum indicum L.) is an important oil seed crop in Chad, but its productivity is constrained by seed-borne fungal pathogens affecting seed quality, germination, and seedling establishment. This study examined the different seed-borne fungi associated with sesame varieties using two International Seed Testing Association (ISTA)-recommended methods: the blotter paper method and agar plate method. The results show that 22 fungal species were identified, with notable differences between the two methods. The blotter paper method detected 13 species, while the agar plate method revealed 22 species, with 3 375 isolates detected using the agar plate method compared to 1 070 isolates on blotter paper method. Using the blotter paper method, Alternaria sesami (13.28%), A. brassicicola (12.51%) and Macrophomina phaseolina (10.69%) were the most frequent species and Bipolaris spicifera (3.86%) and Nigrospora sphaerica (4.02%) were the least frequent. With the agar plate method, the most frequent species were A. sesami (16.92%), Aspergillus niger (12.57%) and Cercospora sesami (12.5%). Pestalotia guepini and Verticillium dahliae were the least frequent species, with respective frequencies of 0.41 and 0.61%. These results revealed a wide diversity of seed-borne fungi of sesame, highlighting the need to develop effective strategies to control these seed-borne fungi.
VL  - 14
IS  - 2
ER  -

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Author Information

Hermann Djelassem Ngarbelem

Department of Plant Biology, University of Dschang, Dschang, Cameroon

http://orcid.org/0009-0008-3634-8910
Ibrahim Njimona

Institute of Medical Research and Medicinal Plants Studies (IMPM), Yaounde, Cameroon

http://orcid.org/0000-0001-6776-9680
Elie Keuete Kamdoum

Department of Plant Biology, University of Dschang, Dschang, Cameroon

Contact Email

http://orcid.org/0000-0001-9315-7151
Signaboubo Serferbe

Panafrican Center for Sustainable Development, N’Djamena, Chad
Sedric Gerryco Songmi

Department of Plant Biology, University of Dschang, Dschang, Cameroon

http://orcid.org/0009-0008-0932-1392
Natacha Ngamveng Nkotto

Department of Plant Biology, University of Dschang, Dschang, Cameroon

http://orcid.org/0009-0000-8950-4659
Gaston Tsopmbeng Noumbo

Department of Plant Biology, University of Dschang, Dschang, Cameroon

http://orcid.org/0009-0002-6696-5887

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Figure 1

Figure 1. Macroscopic and microscopic characteristics of selected seed-borne fungi isolated from sesame seeds. (A) Seven-day-old mycelium; (B) Conidiophores and conidia (40×). 1: Alternaria sesami; 2: Alternaria brassicicola; 3: Alternaria raphani; 4: Cercospora sesami; 5: Cladosporium herbarum; 6: Curvularia lunata; 7: Phoma sorghina; 8: Colletotrichum gloeosporioides; 9: Pestalotia guepini; 10: Macrophomina phaseolina; 11: Fusarium fujikuroi; 12: Fusarium oxysporum.

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APA Style

Ngarbelem, H. D., Njimona, I., Kamdoum, E. K., Serferbe, S., Songmi, S. G., et al. (2026). Seed-borne Fungi Associated with Sesame Seeds Cultivated in Chad Republic. Journal of Plant Sciences, 14(2), 93-103. https://doi.org/10.11648/j.jps.20261402.13

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Ngarbelem, H. D.; Njimona, I.; Kamdoum, E. K.; Serferbe, S.; Songmi, S. G., et al. Seed-borne Fungi Associated with Sesame Seeds Cultivated in Chad Republic. J. Plant Sci. 2026, 14(2), 93-103. doi: 10.11648/j.jps.20261402.13

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AMA Style

Ngarbelem HD, Njimona I, Kamdoum EK, Serferbe S, Songmi SG, et al. Seed-borne Fungi Associated with Sesame Seeds Cultivated in Chad Republic. J Plant Sci. 2026;14(2):93-103. doi: 10.11648/j.jps.20261402.13

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@article{10.11648/j.jps.20261402.13,
  author = {Hermann Djelassem Ngarbelem and Ibrahim Njimona and Elie Keuete Kamdoum and Signaboubo Serferbe and Sedric Gerryco Songmi and Natacha Ngamveng Nkotto and Gaston Tsopmbeng Noumbo},
  title = {Seed-borne Fungi Associated with Sesame Seeds Cultivated in Chad Republic},
  journal = {Journal of Plant Sciences},
  volume = {14},
  number = {2},
  pages = {93-103},
  doi = {10.11648/j.jps.20261402.13},
  url = {https://doi.org/10.11648/j.jps.20261402.13},
  eprint = {https://article.sciencepublishinggroup.com/pdf/10.11648.j.jps.20261402.13},
  abstract = {Sesame (Sesamum indicum L.) is an important oil seed crop in Chad, but its productivity is constrained by seed-borne fungal pathogens affecting seed quality, germination, and seedling establishment. This study examined the different seed-borne fungi associated with sesame varieties using two International Seed Testing Association (ISTA)-recommended methods: the blotter paper method and agar plate method. The results show that 22 fungal species were identified, with notable differences between the two methods. The blotter paper method detected 13 species, while the agar plate method revealed 22 species, with 3 375 isolates detected using the agar plate method compared to 1 070 isolates on blotter paper method. Using the blotter paper method, Alternaria sesami (13.28%), A. brassicicola (12.51%) and Macrophomina phaseolina (10.69%) were the most frequent species and Bipolaris spicifera (3.86%) and Nigrospora sphaerica (4.02%) were the least frequent. With the agar plate method, the most frequent species were A. sesami (16.92%), Aspergillus niger (12.57%) and Cercospora sesami (12.5%). Pestalotia guepini and Verticillium dahliae were the least frequent species, with respective frequencies of 0.41 and 0.61%. These results revealed a wide diversity of seed-borne fungi of sesame, highlighting the need to develop effective strategies to control these seed-borne fungi.},
 year = {2026}
}

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TY  - JOUR
T1  - Seed-borne Fungi Associated with Sesame Seeds Cultivated in Chad Republic
AU  - Hermann Djelassem Ngarbelem
AU  - Ibrahim Njimona
AU  - Elie Keuete Kamdoum
AU  - Signaboubo Serferbe
AU  - Sedric Gerryco Songmi
AU  - Natacha Ngamveng Nkotto
AU  - Gaston Tsopmbeng Noumbo
Y1  - 2026/04/16
PY  - 2026
N1  - https://doi.org/10.11648/j.jps.20261402.13
DO  - 10.11648/j.jps.20261402.13
T2  - Journal of Plant Sciences
JF  - Journal of Plant Sciences
JO  - Journal of Plant Sciences
SP  - 93
EP  - 103
PB  - Science Publishing Group
SN  - 2331-0731
UR  - https://doi.org/10.11648/j.jps.20261402.13
AB  - Sesame (Sesamum indicum L.) is an important oil seed crop in Chad, but its productivity is constrained by seed-borne fungal pathogens affecting seed quality, germination, and seedling establishment. This study examined the different seed-borne fungi associated with sesame varieties using two International Seed Testing Association (ISTA)-recommended methods: the blotter paper method and agar plate method. The results show that 22 fungal species were identified, with notable differences between the two methods. The blotter paper method detected 13 species, while the agar plate method revealed 22 species, with 3 375 isolates detected using the agar plate method compared to 1 070 isolates on blotter paper method. Using the blotter paper method, Alternaria sesami (13.28%), A. brassicicola (12.51%) and Macrophomina phaseolina (10.69%) were the most frequent species and Bipolaris spicifera (3.86%) and Nigrospora sphaerica (4.02%) were the least frequent. With the agar plate method, the most frequent species were A. sesami (16.92%), Aspergillus niger (12.57%) and Cercospora sesami (12.5%). Pestalotia guepini and Verticillium dahliae were the least frequent species, with respective frequencies of 0.41 and 0.61%. These results revealed a wide diversity of seed-borne fungi of sesame, highlighting the need to develop effective strategies to control these seed-borne fungi.
VL  - 14
IS  - 2
ER  -

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