Exploring Teachers’ Perceptions of Terrorism’s Impact on Pashtun Society and the Role of Peace Education in Mitigation

Khalil ur Rahman

doi:doi:10.11648/j.ri.20260202.16

Research Article |

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Exploring Teachers’ Perceptions of Terrorism’s Impact on Pashtun Society and the Role of Peace Education in Mitigation

Khalil ur Rahman^*

Published in Research and Innovation (Volume 2, Issue 2)

Received: 29 December 2025 Accepted: 8 January 2026 Published: 27 January 2026

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Abstract

Terrorism is a global challenge that has profoundly affected many countries, including Pakistan, where Khyber Pakhtunkhwa has been the most severely impacted province. Among all sectors, education has suffered significant disruption, and the once-stable Pashtun society has been destabilized, creating fear, insecurity, and social fragmentation. Terrorism has not only damaged infrastructure but also weakened social cohesion, trust, and peaceful coexistence among community members. This study explores teachers’ perceptions regarding the impact of terrorism on Pashtun society and examines the need and role of peace education in promoting peace in affected areas, including how peace education fosters social harmony. The study also explored the role of teachers in promoting peace in terrorism-affected areas. The population consisted of 200 randomly selected secondary school teachers from Malakand and Swat districts (100 teachers from each district). A quantitative research design was employed, and data were collected using a five-point Likert scale questionnaire. Descriptive statistics were analyzed using SPSS. Findings reveal that terrorism has significantly disrupted Pashtun society, while teachers strongly support the implementation of peace education. The study highlights the crucial role of teachers in promoting peace, tolerance, and social cohesion, concluding that peace education can mitigate violence and help rebuild resilient and harmonious communities in terrorism-affected areas.

Published in	Research and Innovation (Volume 2, Issue 2)
DOI	10.11648/j.ri.20260202.16
Page(s)	161-172
Creative Commons	This is an Open Access article, distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, provided the original work is properly cited.
Copyright	Copyright © The Author(s), 2026. Published by Science Publishing Group

Keywords

Pashtun/Pakhtun, Pakhtun Society, Pakhtunwali, Terrorism, Peace Education

1. Introduction

Terrorism is a global issue that has impacted the world for several decades and continues to pose a constant threat to international and national peace and stability. Pakistan has endured the curse of terrorism for more than two and a half decades, suffering immense hardships and the loss of countless precious lives; despite continued efforts, terrorism persists, undermining peace, security, and social stability—especially in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, where communities and educational systems remain deeply affected.

In Pakistan’s Pashtun society, terrorism has had profound effects on everyday life. It has disrupted traditional social structures, weakened the cohesion of communities, and created a climate of widespread fear and insecurity

[38]

. Terrorism has profoundly damaged the economic foundations and the social and cultural stability of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa. This province, the homeland of the Pashtuns, is characterized by a deeply rooted social system that has historically sustained community cohesion and collective resilience. However, prolonged exposure to terrorism has shattered this system, generating widespread social dislocation and eroding the adaptive capacity of local communities. Even long-standing indigenous institutions such as the Hujra and Jirga—once symbols of safety, solidarity, and conflict resolution—have lost their protective role. Consequently, a society once marked by peace and mutual trust now exists under persistent fear, insecurity, and fragmentation.

Terrorism and Talibanization have profoundly impacted the lives of people in Swat and FATA, completely transforming the social landscape. Social life in these areas has been severely disrupted

[6]

. Furthermore, Bari

[6]

notes that terrorism and Talibanization severely affected local culture, including bans on music and recreational activities, which had a significant impact on traditional social life, especially for men. Schools and teachers are among the groups most affected in terrorism-affected areas. Research shows that teachers not only see the effects of terrorism firsthand but also influence students’ attitudes, emotional strength, and social understanding

[37]

. Therefore, teachers’ views provide important insights into how terrorism impacts society, especially in places where education plays a key role in maintaining social stability.

Peace Education (PE) is globally recognized as a non-violent and effective approach to addressing extremism and violence. It goes beyond conflict resolution by promoting a culture of peace based on human rights, critical thinking, empathy, and social justice. However, the success of peace education depends largely on how well it is implemented in classrooms. Despite its importance, peace education is mostly absent in the formal education systems of regions like Khyber Pakhtunkhwa

[9]

. In the context of Pashtun society, peace education can play a transformative role by countering the psychological and social harm caused by terrorism, restoring community values, and reinforcing peaceful coexistence. As Iqbal, Said & Khan,

[17]

state, teachers play a crucial role in implementing peace education, which in Swat has reduced terrorism’s impact by fostering justice, democracy, and social cohesion, while restoring community trust and confidence. Peace education plays a significant role in developing moral values among secondary school students by shaping their attitudes and behaviors through exposure to principles of empathy, cooperation, and ethical understanding

[25]

. The education sector, as the cornerstone of social development, has been deeply affected by terrorism. Schools have not only faced physical attacks but have also suffered psychological impacts, creating fear and insecurity among students, teachers, and the wider community. These challenges have eroded key social values, including trust, tolerance, and mutual respect, which are essential for peaceful coexistence. This study seeks to address these issues by examining how terrorism affects society and by exploring the need and role of peace education in areas affected by terrorism. In addition, it investigates the perspectives, practices, and challenges of secondary school teachers in promoting peace through peace education.

2. Review of Literature

2.1. Understanding Terrorism: Concept and Definition

Nowadays, terrorism is widely discussed. Almost every country is writing and speaking about this issue. However, a clear and precise definition of terrorism has not yet emerged. People condemn terrorism, but they cannot clearly explain what exactly constitutes terrorism.

Terrorism is a deliberate use of violence or the threat of violence to create fear, coerce governments, or influence societies for political, ideological, or religious purposes

[32]

. It is not limited to armed attacks; it can also include psychological, social, and economic impacts on communities. While different scholars and organizations define terrorism in slightly different ways, the core elements remain the same: the intent to intimidate, cause disruption, and achieve specific objectives through fear.

Understanding the concept and definition of terrorism is crucial for analyzing its societal impact and for developing strategies, such as peace education, to effectively mitigate its negative consequences. Terrorism does not have a single, universally accepted definition, and its interpretation often varies depending on historical, political, cultural, and ideological contexts. Some groups consider it a legitimate form of resistance against oppression, while others view it as unjustifiable violence directed at innocent civilians. This duality highlights the complexity of the concept and explains why debates over its meaning continue to evolve. As Schmid

[31]

noted, terrorism remains a contested concept without a universally agreed-upon definition. Terrorism is understood as the deliberate use of threats, violence and fear—primarily against innocent’s public for the achievement political or ideological purposes. As Rahman

[29]

explained, acts such as bombings, mass killings, hostage-taking, and attacks on schools or religious sites are widely recognized as forms of terrorism. These actions are often carried out by extremist groups seeking to destabilize societies when legal or democratic avenues fail. Schmid

[33]

highlights the complexity of defining terrorism, describing it as a “wicked problem” because of its multiple and often conflicting interpretations. He argues that while most definitions converge on core elements such as violence, fear, and political motives, they continue to differ across cultural, historical, and political contexts. Schmid further emphasizes that the pursuit of a universal definition remains contested and politically sensitive, which reinforces the view that terrorism is best understood as a dynamic and context-dependent concept.

Some well-known Definition of Terrorism

U.S. Department of State.

[35]

defined “Terrorism is premeditated, politically motivated violence perpetrated against noncombatant targets by subnational groups or clandestine agents, usually intended to influence an audience”. The General Assembly

[34]

, Resolution 49/60) defines terrorism as “criminal acts deliberately intended to instill terror in the public, specific groups, or individuals for political purposes.

According to the European Union

[11]

, terrorism constitutes one of the most serious violations of universal values, including human dignity, liberty, equality, and solidarity, as well as respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms.

In the academic domain, Schmid.

[31]

described terrorism as a “fear-inducing strategy involving repeated acts of violence by clandestine individuals, groups, or even states, committed for political, criminal, or personal motives, where the immediate victims are not the primary targets”. Similarly, Hoffman.

[16]

emphasized terrorism as the “calculated use of violence—or threats of Despite variations, most definitions of terrorism emphasize the use of violence, threats and fear for the achievement of political or ideological purposes. Some focus on targeting civilians, while others broaden the scope to include wider societal and governmental impacts. Schmid highlights repeated violence and anxiety, and local laws, such as Pakistan’s Anti-Terrorism Act, reflect context-specific elements like sectarianism and vandalism. Violence—to generate fear in pursuit of political change”. Summarizing the above definitions, terrorism is the deliberate use of violence, threats, or fear by individuals, groups, or states to achieve political, ideological, or criminal objectives, often targeting civilians or society at large and creating repeated anxiety and disruption.

2.2. Peace Education

Peace education is an essential approach to nurturing values, attitudes, and behaviors that promote harmony, tolerance, and non-violence within societies. It equips individuals with the skills of dialogue, empathy, and conflict resolution, enabling them to address disputes peacefully rather than through aggression. In areas impacted by conflict and terrorism, peace education is critical for restoring trust, strengthening social unity, and equipping future generations to actively promote enduring peace.

According to Maschietto

[26]

peace education serves as both a guiding philosophy and a practical approach, providing students with the understanding and abilities needed to manage conflicts peacefully and contribute to a more harmonious future. It focuses on cultivating attitudes, values, and skills that promote nonviolence, tolerance, and mutual respect.

As a transformative approach, it equips individuals and communities to resolve conflicts peacefully, embrace diversity, and collaborate toward social harmony. By cultivating critical thinking and empathy, peace education serves as a vital foundation for building a just, inclusive, and sustainable culture of peace.

2.3. How Peace Education Promotes Peace in Terrorism Affected Areas

In terrorism affected societies, peace education serves as a transformative mechanism by which fractured communities begin to rebuild trust, resilience and social cohesion. For instance, in Pakistan’s Khyber Pakhtunkhwa region, secondary school teachers noted that curricula integrating peace education helped youth understand the destructive nature of extremist ideologies and fostered more tolerant attitudes

[30]

The lasting impact of terrorism in such regions is evident: for example, attacks on education have reduced school enrollment by 10.5% among girls in north western Pakistan

[22]

. Given this backdrop, peace education addresses critical needs—by equipping learners with conflict resolution skills, critical thinking capacities, and awareness of human rights

[28]

. In concert, these elements show that peace education is not a peripheral add on but central to long term recovery, stability and the reconstruction of the social fabric in communities ravaged by terrorism. Peace education promotes peace in terrorism-affected areas by fostering tolerance, empathy, and mutual understanding among individuals and communities. It helps people develop non-violent conflict resolution skills, strengthens social cohesion, and reduces the appeal of extremist ideologies.

Through moral, emotional, and civic education, peace education empowers individuals to reject violence, respect diversity, and work collectively for a stable and harmonious society. The primary aim of peace education is to promote social transformation and encourage positive attitudes through changed behavior by reshaping an individual’s innate abilities for inner transformation

[18]

Every nation in the world aspires to prevent terrorism and promote peace, which requires a system of quality education that fosters knowledge, skills, and values essential for building a peaceful society. In this context, peace education serves as the most appropriate and effective approach to achieving these goals. In this regard, Adnan

[2]

states that peace education promotes social justice and sustainable peace in terrorism-affected areas by strengthening social cohesion, mutual respect, and civic responsibility. Even without a formal subject, themes of tolerance, justice, and conflict resolution in existing curricula help counter extremism by fostering empathy, critical thinking, and non-violence.

Ultimately, peace education rebuilds trust and nurtures a culture of harmony in terrorism-affected societies. Peace education can be viewed as a process aimed at developing values, understanding, and nurturing attitudes, skills, and behaviors necessary for living gracefully in a peaceful society. Peace and conflict studies can play a significant role in promoting non-violent behavior among students within institutions, particularly in the field of social sciences.

Ahmad, Said, Khan

[3]

and describe peace education as a problem solving process that promotes universal values through education, helping violence-affected people unite, embrace peace, and build a shared, peaceful future for all. Peace education is a process that raises awareness among people about the dangers of conflict and violence and develops strategies for peace to ensure prosperity, harmony, and unity within society.

2.4. Need of Peace Education

The need for peace education is more critical than ever, as communities living under constant fear and violence face deep psychological, social, and educational challenges. Terrorism not only disrupts daily life but also erodes trust, fuels intolerance, and weakens social cohesion. In such contexts, peace education provides an essential framework for promoting tolerance, empathy, and dialogue while equipping individuals with the skills to reject violence and work toward reconciliation. By fostering non-violence and mutual respect, peace education can help rebuild fractured societies and prepare future generations for a more peaceful and resilient future. Biswas

[8]

asserts that peace education facilitates self-realization, often regarded as the ultimate goal of life.

Functioning as both a philosophy and a practical process, it cultivates essential skills such as conflict resolution, cooperation, patience, and critical reflection. By promoting nonviolence, compassion, and empathy, peace education empowers individuals to contribute to the creation of a safer and more resilient society. Chowdhury & Mete

[10]

emphasized the need for a new approach to education: “In order to rise to the challenges of today’s complex world, today’s youth deserved a radically different education: one that educates not for war but for peace, nonviolence and collaboration. They need skills and knowledge to cultivate peace for themselves and for the world in which they live” (pp. 423). Qadeem

[28]

emphasized that peace education is a crucial tool for addressing violence and reducing its long-term impacts, serving as one of the most effective means of integrating peace into society. Peace education seeks to counter violence and terrorism by guiding societies from conditions of fear and disruption toward peace, stability, and harmony

[3]

. In terrorism-affected areas, peace education is not merely an academic pursuit but a social necessity. It equips individuals with the values of tolerance, coexistence, and conflict resolution, helping to rebuild trust and restore community confidence. By fostering a culture of peace, it provides an essential pathway for healing societies torn apart by fear, hatred, and violence, ultimately ensuring long-term stability and harmony.

2.5. Pashtun (Pakhtun) Society

Pashtun, or Pukhtun, society represents the collective social, cultural, and political life of a large ethnic group living primarily across Afghanistan and Pakistan, particularly in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Balochistan, and the tribal regions. Their identity is shaped not only by shared language and ancestry but also by Pashtunwali, the centuries-old ethical code that continues to guide social conduct, justice, and community relations.

A notable characteristic of Pashtun society is its individual-centered organization. Each man is expected to be autonomous and capable of managing his own affairs, which creates an atmosphere of competition among males. At the same time, Pashtuns have historically demonstrated adaptability. Wazir

[36]

observes that they have shifted fluidly between traditional tribal structures, such as the Jirga and Pashtunwali principles, and more formal state institutions inspired by modern governance models.

Research highlights Pashtun society as a dynamic system shaped by segmentary lineage structures, customary practices, and evolving global influences. Johnson and Mason

[20]

argue that the tribal foundations of Pashtun social organization—particularly the values of Badal (revenge) and collective decision-making through the Jirga—provide mechanisms for rapid mobilization and resistance against external threats. Similarly notes Glatzer

[14]

that lineage-based alliances change according to situational interests, captured in the well-known proverb, “me against my brother…,” while the Jirga serves as a flexible tool for conflict resolution.

However, these traditional institutions are embedded within a gendered social framework. Ahmed

[4]

shows that the Jirga operates as a performative space that reinforces masculinity, honor, and shame, often through decisions involving women. Mahmood and Kazi

[24]

further reveal a strong association between honor norms and violence against women, including honor killings, which are framed as restoring nang (male honor).

Taken together, these studies demonstrate that while Pashtunwali remains central to Pashtun social organization—shaping ethics, conflict resolution, and gender norms—the society continues to transform in response to internal pressures, migration, and modern influences. This combination of continuity and change ensures that Pashtun social institutions retain their relevance in contemporary contexts.

2.6. Basic Qualities of Pakhtun Society

Pashtun society is distinguished by its adherence to Pashtunwali, an unwritten ethical and cultural code central to social organization

[23]

. Pashtunwali regulates individual and collective behavior, decision-making, and social interactions, covering family, politics, culture, economy, and religious practices

[19]

. The code emphasizes honor, hospitality, justice, courage, and perseverance, ensuring both social order and cohesion.

Key institutions—such as Jirga (tribal council), Hujra (community gathering space), and family and tribal networks—support the implementation of these norms. Pashtunwali has evolved over centuries through ancestral inheritance, interaction with neighboring communities, and historical adaptation, reflecting both continuity and flexibility in Pashtun social life. These structures collectively form the backbone of Pashtun social organization, shaping behavior, maintaining collective identity, and regulating conflict.

2.7. Basic Elements of Pakhtunwali

1) Melmastia (Hospitality): Providing generous hospitality to all guests and strangers.

2) Nanawatai (Asylum / Protection): Offering refuge and protection to those who seek it, even enemies.

3) Badal (Justice / Revenge): Upholding justice, which may include revenge to protect honor.

4) Ghairat (Honor): Protecting personal, family, and community honor, especially the dignity of women.

5) Nang (Courage / Integrity): Showing bravery, integrity, and adherence to moral and ethical principles.

6) Jirga (Council / Decision-making): A council of elders to resolve disputes and make community decisions.

7) Hujra (Community Center): A common gathering place for social, political, and cultural discussions.

8) Tura / Nanawati (Loyalty and Respect for Guests and Tribe): Loyalty to family, tribe, and respect for social norms and customs.

9) Badal / Qisas (Revenge / Justice): Maintaining justice and restoring balance when wrongs occur.

10) Isteqamat (Perseverance / Steadfastness): Consistency and resilience in upholding values and traditions.

2.8. Impact of Terrorism on Society

Terrorism profoundly undermines peace by destabilizing societal harmony, trust, and cooperation. It generates fear, insecurity, and distrust among individuals and communities, thereby disrupting social cohesion and collective functioning

[29, 33]

. By threatening lives, instilling fear, and fostering division, terrorism erodes the foundations of peaceful coexistence, encouraging extremism, intolerance, and the loss of cultural diversity. Prolonged conflict in FATA and Khyber Pakhtunkhwa has distorted cultural and value-based norms, contributing to radicalization and creating opportunities for extremist elements

[13]

These strategies not only threaten security but also obstruct the establishment of sustainable peace. Terrorism’s unpredictable nature spreads fear beyond direct victims, while suicide attacks intensify psychological trauma, deepening societal anxiety and insecurity

[1]

. In regions such as Khyber Pakhtunkhwa and Balochistan, terrorism has weakened traditional social structures, reducing trust, civic participation, and cooperation, which are essential for sustaining peace.

Moreover, terrorism negatively impacts economic stability, education, and governance, further undermining conditions for peace

[7]

. Guo and An

[15]

emphasize that terrorism shapes social beliefs, fostering fear, prejudice, and marginalization of vulnerable populations. This disruption not only harms collective peace but also affects individual mental health and well-being

[9]

Ultimately, terrorism impedes both social and political peace by creating a climate of insecurity, distrust, and instability. Addressing its impact requires not only security measures but also peace education, dialogue, and the promotion of moderation, which can rebuild trust, enhance social cohesion, and foster resilience in affected communities.

2.9. Impact of Terrorism on Pashtun Society

Pashtun society is deeply rooted in Pashtunwali, a traditional code of conduct that governs behavior, conflict resolution, and community cohesion. Key elements include the Jirga (council of elders), Hujra (communal gathering space), Ghairat (honor), and strong family and tribal affiliations that guide social identity and collective order.

Terrorism has profoundly affected Pashtun society, resulting in human losses, displacement, destruction of property, and disruption of social, cultural, and economic structures. Tribal elders and civilians have been killed, homes and infrastructure destroyed, and traditional institutions such as the Jirga and Pashtunwali weakened. Economic instability has further undermined societal structures, increasing disorder and reducing collective functioning

[21]

. Prolonged conflict in FATA and Khyber Pakhtunkhwa has distorted cultural and value-based norms, contributing to radicalization and creating opportunities for extremist elements.

Terrorism has particularly undermined the Jirga and Hujra, weakening traditional decision-making and limiting communal interaction. Core Pashtunwali values, including Badal (justice/revenge) and Nang (honor), were distorted, while tolerance and collective norms were severely compromised.

Overall, terrorism has disrupted essential elements of Pashtun society—Jirga, Hujra, tribal cohesion, hospitality, honor, and traditions—creating gaps in social structures and enabling extremist influences, thereby threatening the resilience, stability, and sustainability of the community.

2.10. Role of Teachers in Promoting Peace through Peace Education in Terrorism Affected Areas

Teaching in terrorism-affected areas poses significant challenges and dangers. On one hand, schools are frequent targets of terrorist attacks; on the other hand, extremist groups often attempt to recruit schoolchildren to expand their ranks. In this context, teachers not only fulfill their instructional responsibilities but also play a critical role in safeguarding students from exposure to radical ideologies. Therefore, the role of teachers in terrorism-affected regions is of paramount importance, as they serve both as educators and protectors, nurturing resilience and promoting peace among their students. Teachers face the challenge of protecting students from terrorism, as extremists target and recruit youth; hence, teachers must guide them to resist radical views. School teachers are key agents of peace in terrorism affected areas, rebuilding trust and promoting tolerance, coexistence, and social cohesion. Through peace education, teachers can guide young minds toward understanding the roots of conflict, appreciating diversity, and developing non-violent means of resolving differences.

Teachers at schools, colleges, and universities play a crucial role in promoting peace through the younger generation. As the nation's future depends on students, educators should instill the values of peace education and teach ways to maintain social harmony, enabling citizens to prevent conflicts at both community and international levels

[27]

. Teachers play a vital role in shaping the future by nurturing students’ interests and guiding them through experience. As role models, they protect students not only from harmful habits but also from extremist ideologies that can harm individuals, families, and societies worldwide

[12]

. According to the Directorate of National Education

[12]

, teachers are the most important figures who prepare students for life, guide them in adapting to the world they live in, and support them in all areas where guidance is needed. In regions traumatized by terrorism, teachers act not only as instructors but also as healers and mentors. They create a safe learning environment where students can express their fears, share experiences, and regain a sense of hope. By incorporating peace-oriented lessons, dialogue-based learning, and activities that promote empathy and cooperation, teachers help students move away from hatred and revenge toward reconciliation and mutual respect. However, it remains a great challenge for teachers to protect their students from the curse of terrorism, as extremists often target young minds for recruitment. Therefore, teachers must remain vigilant and focus on guiding students to resist extremist ideologies and embrace peace-based values

[12]

. In this regard, Al-Badayneh

[5]

states that students possess an impressionable personality that can easily be shaped into self-proclaimed advocates of social change, as they belong to a demographic group characterized by a search for identity, a desire for security, and a tendency toward rebellion. Moreover, teachers can model peaceful behavior through their own conduct—demonstrating patience, fairness, and compassion. They play a key role in countering extremist narratives by promoting critical thinking and encouraging students to question violence and intolerance. Ultimately, the efforts of school teachers in such contexts extend far beyond classrooms; they contribute to building resilient, peaceful communities capable of resisting future cycles of violence. Rahman

[29]

explained the relationship between school and society by stating “that both are deeply interconnected.

The school significantly influences society, and society, in turn, shapes the school. When teachers exhibit coordinated, cooperative, and democratic behavior within schools, these same democratic and harmonious traditions begin to develop in society. Conversely, if teachers display undemocratic and non-cooperative behavior, similar negative values tend to emerge within the broader social structure”. One of the major causes behind the spread of terrorism is the lack of education, which highlights the crucial role of teachers in shaping young minds. In many countries where poverty and political instability hinder access to quality education, teachers serve as the first line of defense against extremist influence. By nurturing critical thinking, empathy, and awareness among students, teachers can prevent them from becoming easy targets for terrorist recruiters and guide them toward peace and constructive citizenship.

Teachers play a vital role in countering the destructive effects of terrorism and promoting peace in societies where ignorance and lack of education fuel violence and intolerance. Through quality education, teachers nurture empathy, patience, and conflict-resolution skills among students, helping them resist extremist ideologies. In environments where education is absent, individuals often become vulnerable to manipulation and ideological deception by terrorist groups. However, teachers act as moral guides and peace-builders, equipping young minds with critical thinking and compassion to challenge hatred and reject violence. By shaping informed, tolerant, and peace-loving citizens, teachers serve as the strongest force against terrorism and a foundation for lasting peace.

3. Purpose of Research

The purpose of this study is to explore high school teachers’ perceptions regarding the impact of terrorism on Pukhtun society and the role of peace education in mitigating these effects. The study further aims to examine the need for peace education in terrorism-affected areas and to analyze the role of high school teachers in promoting peace within these communities.

4. Research Objectives

1) To explore the perception of high school teachers regarding the impact of terrorism on Pashtun society.

2) To examine the perceptions of High school teachers regarding the need for peace education.

3) To explore the perceptions of High school teachers regarding how peace education promotes peace in terrorism-affected areas.

4) To investigate the role of High school teachers in promoting peace through peace education in terrorism-affected areas.

5. Method and Procedure

This study employs a quantitative survey research design to explore high school teachers’ perceptions regarding the impact of terrorism on Pashtun society and the role of peace education in mitigating its effects. The population consists of secondary school teachers from Malakand and Swat districts, selected due to their exposure to terrorism-affected environments. Data will be collected using a structured questionnaire designed for the four research objectives, with each question measured on a five-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (Strongly Disagree) to 5 (Strongly Agree). The questionnaire addresses teachers’ perceptions of the social impact of terrorism, the need for peace education, the role of peace education in promoting harmony, and teachers’ personal role in fostering peace. Questionnaires will be distributed in person, ensuring voluntary participation, anonymity, and confidentiality. Collected data will be analyzed using SPSS, with descriptive statistics such as frequencies, percentages, means, and standard deviations, and inferential analyses like correlation and regression to examine relationships between variables, providing empirical insights into teachers’ perspectives on terrorism and peace education.

6. Findings and Analysis

Table 1. Impact of Terrorism on pakhtun Society.

Statements	SDA (f,%)	DA (,%)	Un (f,%)	A (f,%)	SA (f,%)	M	SD
Damaged the credibility and neutrality of Jirga System	10 (5%)	8 (4%)	11 (55%)	66 (33%)	105 (52.5%)	4.24	1.07
Elders of the community participate less in Jirga decisions.	6 (3%)	3 (1.5%)	7 (3.5%)	70 (35%)	114 (57%)	4.42	0.88
Social gatherings in Hujras have declined due to security concerns.	3 (1.5%)	5 (2.5%)	8 (4%)	55 (27.5%)	134 (67%)	4.52	0.81
Disrupted the traditional role of the Hujra in Pashtun society	9 (4.5%)	13 (6.5%)	6 (3%)	84 (42%)	88 (44%)	4.15	1.06
Hujras were closed to strangers due to terrorism.	2 (1%)	7 (3.5%)	12 (6%)	108 (54%)	71 (35.5%)	4.20	0.78
Hospitality has decreased due to terrorism	9 (4.5%)	4 (2%)	3 (1.5%)	80 (40%)	104 (52%)	4.33	0.96
Family honor has been seriously affected	11 ((5.%%)	5 (2.5%)	3 (1.5%)	60 ((30%)	121 (60.5%)	4.38	1.04
Trust in society has declined	19 (9.5%)	13 (6.5%)	0 (0%)	65 (32.5%)	103 (51.5%)	4.10	1.28
Local disputes have increased	6 (3%)	3 (1.5%)	2 (1%)	79 (39.5%)	110 (55%)	4.42	0.85
Pashtunwali core values are severely distorted	0 (0%)	0 (0%)	0 (0%)	35 (17.5%)	165 (82.5%)	4.83	0.38

The results clearly indicate that terrorism has profoundly disrupted Pashtun society, as reflected in consistently high mean scores across all statements. Respondents strongly agreed that the Jirga system has lost credibility, elders’ participation has declined, and social gatherings in Hujras have reduced, showing severe damage to traditional institutions. The closure of Hujras to strangers and the decline in hospitality practices highlight a major erosion of core cultural values such as Melmastia. Family honor and trust within society have also been significantly affected, contributing to increased local disputes and weakening community cohesion. The highest agreement emerged on the distortion of Pashtunwali’s core values, indicating widespread perception that the cultural and moral foundations of Pashtun identity have been deeply compromised. Overall, the findings reveal a consistent and extensive breakdown of social, cultural, and communal structures, demonstrating the far-reaching impact of terrorism on Pashtun society.

Table 2. Need for peace education in terrorism affected areas.

Statement	SD (f,%)	D (f,%)	U (f,%)	A (f,%)	SA (f,%)	(M)	SD
Strengthen social control	3 (1.5%)	5 (2.5%)	5 (2.5%)	96 (48.0%)	91 (45.5%)	4.33	0.79
Restore authority & conflict resolution	3 (1.5%)	22 (11.0%)	8 (4.0%)	95 (47.5%)	72 (36.0%)	4.08	0.99
Promote equality across ranks	1 (0.5%)	2 (1.0%)	1 (0.5%)	36 (18.0%)	160 (80.0%)	4.76	0.63
Responsible social/community roles	11 (5.5%)	12 (6.0%)	10 (5.0%)	67 (33.5%)	100 (50.0%)	4.22	0.96
Promote mutual help & courteous behavior	3 (1.5%)	22 (11.0%)	11 (5.5%)	45 (22.5%)	119 (59.5%)	4.30	1.02
Respect elders & community traditions	2 (1.0%)	10 (5.0%)	5 (2.5%)	108 (54.0%)	75 (37.5%)	4.22	0.84
Commitment to educational goals	1 (0.5%)	6 (3.0%)	13 (6.5%)	45 (22.5%)	135 (67.5%)	4.42	0.84
Strengthen solidarity & hospitality	20 (10.0%)	16 (8.0%)	9 (4.5%)	88 (44.0%)	67 (33.5%)	3.99	1.12
Reduce fear, hatred, mistrust	3 (1.5%)	8 (4.0%)	3 (1.5%)	66 (33.0%)	120 (60.0%)	4.48	0.87
Promote religious beliefs for peace	1 (0.5%)	2 (1.0%)	3 (1.5%)	33 (16.5%)	161 (80.5%)	4.77	0.65
Restore community trust	5 (2.5%)	8 (4.0%)	7 (3.5%)	30 (15.0%)	150 (75.0%)	4.48	0.90

Table 2, highlights strong support for peace education among respondents. Specifically: 160 respondents (80.0%) strongly agreed that peace education reduces social divisions and promotes equality across all ranks (M = 4.76, SD = 0.63). 161 respondents (80.5%) strongly agreed that it promotes religious beliefs encouraging peace and tolerance (M = 4.77, SD = 0.65). 150 respondents (75.0%) strongly agreed that it restores trust among community members and social groups (M = 4.48, SD = 0.90). Other items, such as strengthening social control mechanisms, enhancing legitimate authority, promoting mutual help, restoring respect for elders, and encouraging responsible fulfillment of social roles, received moderate to high agreement, with mean scores ranging from 4.08 to 4.48. These findings suggest that participants strongly perceive peace education as essential to counteract the negative social effects of terrorism.

Table 3. How Peace Education promote Peace in terrorism affected area.

Statement	SDA, f (%)	DA, f (%)	Un, f (%)	A, f (%)	SA, f (%)	Mean	SD
Reduces internal conflicts arising from political, religious, ethnic, and cultural differences.	20 (10.0%)	16 (8.0%)	9 (4.5%)	88 (44.0%)	67 (33.5%)	3.99	1.12
Creates awareness against extremist ideologies	3 (1.5%)	8 (4.0%)	3 (1.5%)	66 (33.0%)	120 (60.0%)	4.48	0.87
Fosters respect for diversity, including cultural, religious, linguistic, and racial differences.	3 (1.5%)	22 (11.0%)	8 (4.0%)	95 (47.5%)	72 (36.0%)	4.08	0.99
Reduces fear and anxiety caused by terrorism	1 (0.5%)	2 (1.0%)	1 (0.5%)	36 (18.0%)	160 (80.0%)	4.76	0.63
Equips students with conflict resolution skills	11 (5.5%)	12 (6.0%)	10 (5.0%)	67 (33.5%)	100 (50.0%)	4.22	0.96
Raise awareness about the harmful impact of terrorism	3 (1.5%)	22 (11.0%)	11 (5.5%)	45 (22.5%)	119 (59.5%)	4.30	1.02
Prepares students to become responsible and peaceful citizen	1 (0.5%)	6 (3.0%)	3 (1.5%)	15 (7.5%)	175 (87.5%)	4.75	0.67
Prepares students to value pluralism over individualism	13 (6.5%)	41 (20.5%)	6 (3.0%)	78 (39.0%)	62 (31.0%)	4.02	1.04
Builds confidence and leadership in students to promote peace in society	1 (0.5%)	6 (3.0%)	3 (1.5%)	15 (7.5%)	175 (87.5%)	4.75	0.67
Promotes fundamental social values on which peaceful society is build	10 (5%)	41 (20.5%)	6 (3.0%)	78 (39.0%)	65 (32.5.0%)	4.02	1.04

The data on the above table reveals a strong consensus among teachers that peace education plays a vital role in promoting peace, tolerance, and harmony in regions suffering from terrorism. Overall mean scores ranging from 3.99 to 4.76 indicate a high level of agreement across all statements. Teachers believe that peace education significantly reduces internal conflicts arising from political, religious, and ethnic differences by fostering understanding and respect for diversity. It creates awareness against extremist ideologies, enabling students to resist radicalization and reject violence. The findings further show that peace education fosters respect for cultural, linguistic, and religious pluralism, while also helping to reduce fear, trauma, and anxiety caused by terrorism, as reflected in the highest mean (4.76). Moreover, it equips students with essential conflict resolution and negotiation skills, preparing them to handle disputes peacefully. Peace education raises awareness about the harmful impacts of terrorism on society and helps shape responsible, ethical, and peace-loving citizens. It encourages valuing pluralism over individualism, promotes social responsibility, and strengthens students’ confidence and leadership qualities to promote peace in their communities. Furthermore, it cultivates fundamental social values such as justice, tolerance, cooperation, and empathy, which are the foundation of a peaceful society. Collectively, these findings demonstrate that peace education serves as a transformative tool that not only counters the psychological and ideological impacts of terrorism but also builds a generation capable of fostering coexistence, resilience, and long-term stability in terrorism-affected areas.

Table 4. The role of High school teachers in promoting peace through peace education.

Statement	SDA f (%)	DA f (%)	N f (%)	A f (%)	SA f (%)	Mean	SD
Encourage students to critically resist radical and extremist ideologies.	10 (5%)	25 (12.5%)	2 (1%)	51 (25.5%)	112 (56%)	4.15	1.02
Help students understand the adverse effects of terrorism on humanity.	17 (8.5%)	7 (3.5%)	9 (4.5%)	67 (33.5%)	100 (50%)	4.14	0.95
Impart lessons that emphasize the importance of human values and compassion.	13 (6.5%)	23 (11.5%)	10 (5%)	45 (22.5%)	109 (55%)	4.07	1.01
Value and appreciate cultural, religious, and social diversity within the classroom.	0 (0%)	0 (0%)	0 (0%)	65 (32.5%)	135 (67.5%)	4.45	0.83
Promote approaches that sustain social harmony and peaceful coexistence among students.	16 (8%)	6 (3%)	11 (5.5%)	55 (27.5%)	112 (56%)	4.20	0.88
Strengthen students’ resilience against the fear and psychological consequences of terrorism.	11 (5.5%)	9 (4.5%)	12 (6%)	51 (25.5%)	117 (58.5%)	4.27	0.84
Provide emotional and psychological support to help students overcome trauma caused by terrorism.	31 (15.5%)	17 (8.5%)	13 (6.5%)	65 (32.5%)	74 (37%)	3.68	1.12
Promote unity and solidarity among students, irrespective of religion, ethnicity, or social background.	13 (6.5%)	7 (3.5%)	5 (2.5%)	70 (35%)	105 (52.5%)	4.23	0.93
Highlight the destructive impact of terrorism on social cohesion and national development.	33 (16.5%)	13 (6.5%)	4 (2%)	57 (28.5%)	93 (46.5%)	3.98	1.09
Actively discourage extremist and intolerant thinking within the classroom environment.	7 (3.5%)	3 (1.5%)	17 (8.5%)	72 (36%)	101 (51%)	4.29	0.86
Recognize that terrorism undermines the spirit of unity, tolerance, and mutual respect within society.	0 (0%)	0 (0%)	37 (18.5%)	103 (51.5%)	60 (30%)	4.10	0.91

The results indicate that teachers play a vital role in promoting peace through peace education, particularly in terrorism-affected areas. The majority of teachers agreed or strongly agreed (above 80% in most cases) that peace education empowers students to critically resist radical and extremist ideologies, understand the adverse effects of terrorism, and develop moral, social, and emotional values that sustain peace. High mean scores (ranging from 3.68 to 4.45) reflect a strong consensus among teachers on the effectiveness of peace education in fostering tolerance, compassion, and unity. Moreover, the relatively low standard deviations (0.83–1.12) suggest consistent responses across participants. Teachers also emphasized their role in creating inclusive classrooms, promoting cultural and religious diversity, and helping students overcome fear and trauma caused by terrorism. These findings highlight that teachers are not merely transmitters of knowledge but also peacebuilders and facilitators of harmony, shaping young minds toward non-violence, empathy, and social cohesion through peace education.

7. Discussion

The findings of this study clearly demonstrate that terrorism has profoundly disrupted the traditional social fabric of Pashtun society. A consistently high percentage of respondents across all items indicates that the core institutions of Pashtunwali—such as Jirga, Hujra, hospitality (Melmastia), family honor (nang), and trust—have been severely affected. More than half of the respondents agreed that the credibility and neutrality of the Jirga system have been damaged, while community elders participate less in dispute-resolution processes, suggesting a breakdown of traditional authority structures. The decline in Hujra gatherings and the closure of Hujras to strangers reflect how fear and insecurity have replaced openness, collectivism, and social cohesion—values that historically defined Pashtun culture. Similarly, the majority of participants affirmed that terrorism has reduced hospitality and weakened family honor, both of which are central pillars of Pashtunwali. The significant agreement that trust within society has declined and that local disputes have increased indicates that terrorism has not only eroded cultural values but also intensified social fragmentation. the majority of respondents affirmed that peace education is the dire need of terrorism affected areas. Study revealed that how peace education promotes peace in terrorism affected areas. These results align with previous literature emphasizing that prolonged violence destabilizes indigenous social systems and leads to the marginalization of cultural traditions. Overall, the findings underscore the urgent need for peace-building initiatives and culturally sensitive educational programs to restore community trust and revive traditional mechanisms that once ensured harmony in Pashtun society. Findings of this study align with the study of Hussain et al.

[17]

, which concluded that terrorist’ attacks have a profound impact on individuals’ mental health, thereby validating the psychological struggles expressed by respondents. Similarly, the present findings support those of Batool, Shahed, and Nadeem

[7]

, who found that respondents experienced psychological, social, and physical effects that adversely affected their lives, reinforcing the evidence that terrorism penetrates deeply into the personal and social dimensions of human existence. Collectively, these converging findings illustrate how terrorism generates both immediate and long-lasting consequences, weakening individuals’ resilience, damaging institutional credibility, and eroding the social bonds that are essential for peace and stability.

8. Conclusion

The results of this study demonstrate that terrorism has profoundly damaged the cultural, social, and traditional foundations of Pashtun society. The high levels of agreement across all survey items reveal that core elements of Pashtunwali—including the Jirga system, the role of the Hujra, hospitality, family honor, social trust, and community cohesion—have all experienced significant decline. These disruptions show that terrorism has not only undermined traditional conflict-resolution mechanisms and social institutions but has also weakened interpersonal relationships and community stability. Furthermore, the study highlights a strong and urgent need for peace education in terrorism-affected areas, as respondents consistently affirmed its potential to promote positive attitudes, rebuild trust, and revive harmony within communities. Overall, the findings emphasize that sustainable peace in Pashtun society requires targeted peace-building programs, culturally grounded educational initiatives, and the active involvement of teachers as key agents of social transformation.

9. Recommendations

1) Strengthen Peace Education Programs: Schools in terrorism-affected areas should integrate structured peace education modules that promote tolerance, conflict resolution, and non-violence, enabling students to develop positive social attitudes.

2) Train the Teachers: Provide professional training and resources for teachers in terrorism-affected areas to enhance their capacity in peacebuilding and conflict resolution.

3) Cultural Integration: Integrate culturally relevant peace practices into school programs to encourage collaborative learning, dialogue, and respect for local traditions and values.

4) Community and Religious Leaders: Engage community and religious leaders in school-based peace initiatives to strengthen social cohesion and reinforce positive societal values.

10. Suggestions for Future Research

1) Longitudinal Studies: Future research could conduct longitudinal studies to examine the long-term effects of terrorism on Pakhtun Society and the sustained impact of peace education interventions over time.

2) Comparative Studies: Comparative research across different regions or countries affected by terrorism could provide insights into cultural, social, and educational differences in coping mechanisms and peace-building strategies.

3) Role of Parents and Community: Future research could examine the influence of parents, community leaders, and local organizations in supporting peace education and fostering social cohesion.

4) Qualitative Approaches: This study employed a quantitative design focusing on secondary school teachers in two districts of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa. Future research is recommended to adopt qualitative approaches, such as interviews or focus group discussions with teachers, parents, and community members, to gain deeper insights into perceptions and experiences.

Abbreviations

KPP	Khyber Pakhtunkhwa
PE	Peace Educationj

Author Contributions

Khalil ur Rahman is the sole author. The author read and approved the final manuscript.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

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Rahman, K. U. (2026). Exploring Teachers’ Perceptions of Terrorism’s Impact on Pashtun Society and the Role of Peace Education in Mitigation. Research and Innovation, 2(2), 161-172. https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ri.20260202.16

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Rahman, K. U. Exploring Teachers’ Perceptions of Terrorism’s Impact on Pashtun Society and the Role of Peace Education in Mitigation. Res. Innovation 2026, 2(2), 161-172. doi: 10.11648/j.ri.20260202.16

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Rahman KU. Exploring Teachers’ Perceptions of Terrorism’s Impact on Pashtun Society and the Role of Peace Education in Mitigation. Res Innovation. 2026;2(2):161-172. doi: 10.11648/j.ri.20260202.16

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@article{10.11648/j.ri.20260202.16,
  author = {Khalil ur Rahman},
  title = {Exploring Teachers’ Perceptions of Terrorism’s Impact on Pashtun Society and the Role of Peace Education in Mitigation},
  journal = {Research and Innovation},
  volume = {2},
  number = {2},
  pages = {161-172},
  doi = {10.11648/j.ri.20260202.16},
  url = {https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ri.20260202.16},
  eprint = {https://article.sciencepublishinggroup.com/pdf/10.11648.j.ri.20260202.16},
  abstract = {Terrorism is a global challenge that has profoundly affected many countries, including Pakistan, where Khyber Pakhtunkhwa has been the most severely impacted province. Among all sectors, education has suffered significant disruption, and the once-stable Pashtun society has been destabilized, creating fear, insecurity, and social fragmentation. Terrorism has not only damaged infrastructure but also weakened social cohesion, trust, and peaceful coexistence among community members. This study explores teachers’ perceptions regarding the impact of terrorism on Pashtun society and examines the need and role of peace education in promoting peace in affected areas, including how peace education fosters social harmony. The study also explored the role of teachers in promoting peace in terrorism-affected areas. The population consisted of 200 randomly selected secondary school teachers from Malakand and Swat districts (100 teachers from each district). A quantitative research design was employed, and data were collected using a five-point Likert scale questionnaire. Descriptive statistics were analyzed using SPSS. Findings reveal that terrorism has significantly disrupted Pashtun society, while teachers strongly support the implementation of peace education. The study highlights the crucial role of teachers in promoting peace, tolerance, and social cohesion, concluding that peace education can mitigate violence and help rebuild resilient and harmonious communities in terrorism-affected areas.},
 year = {2026}
}

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TY - JOUR
T1 - Exploring Teachers’ Perceptions of Terrorism’s Impact on Pashtun Society and the Role of Peace Education in Mitigation
AU - Khalil ur Rahman
Y1 - 2026/01/27
PY - 2026
N1 - https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ri.20260202.16
DO - 10.11648/j.ri.20260202.16
T2 - Research and Innovation
JF - Research and Innovation
JO - Research and Innovation
SP - 161
EP - 172
PB - Science Publishing Group
UR - https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ri.20260202.16
AB - Terrorism is a global challenge that has profoundly affected many countries, including Pakistan, where Khyber Pakhtunkhwa has been the most severely impacted province. Among all sectors, education has suffered significant disruption, and the once-stable Pashtun society has been destabilized, creating fear, insecurity, and social fragmentation. Terrorism has not only damaged infrastructure but also weakened social cohesion, trust, and peaceful coexistence among community members. This study explores teachers’ perceptions regarding the impact of terrorism on Pashtun society and examines the need and role of peace education in promoting peace in affected areas, including how peace education fosters social harmony. The study also explored the role of teachers in promoting peace in terrorism-affected areas. The population consisted of 200 randomly selected secondary school teachers from Malakand and Swat districts (100 teachers from each district). A quantitative research design was employed, and data were collected using a five-point Likert scale questionnaire. Descriptive statistics were analyzed using SPSS. Findings reveal that terrorism has significantly disrupted Pashtun society, while teachers strongly support the implementation of peace education. The study highlights the crucial role of teachers in promoting peace, tolerance, and social cohesion, concluding that peace education can mitigate violence and help rebuild resilient and harmonious communities in terrorism-affected areas.
VL - 2
IS - 2
ER -

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Khalil ur Rahman

Government Zeeshan Shaheed High School, Dargai, Pakistan

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http://orcid.org/0009-0001-1011-6643

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Rahman, K. U. (2026). Exploring Teachers’ Perceptions of Terrorism’s Impact on Pashtun Society and the Role of Peace Education in Mitigation. Research and Innovation, 2(2), 161-172. https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ri.20260202.16

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Rahman, K. U. Exploring Teachers’ Perceptions of Terrorism’s Impact on Pashtun Society and the Role of Peace Education in Mitigation. Res. Innovation 2026, 2(2), 161-172. doi: 10.11648/j.ri.20260202.16

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Rahman KU. Exploring Teachers’ Perceptions of Terrorism’s Impact on Pashtun Society and the Role of Peace Education in Mitigation. Res Innovation. 2026;2(2):161-172. doi: 10.11648/j.ri.20260202.16

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@article{10.11648/j.ri.20260202.16,
  author = {Khalil ur Rahman},
  title = {Exploring Teachers’ Perceptions of Terrorism’s Impact on Pashtun Society and the Role of Peace Education in Mitigation},
  journal = {Research and Innovation},
  volume = {2},
  number = {2},
  pages = {161-172},
  doi = {10.11648/j.ri.20260202.16},
  url = {https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ri.20260202.16},
  eprint = {https://article.sciencepublishinggroup.com/pdf/10.11648.j.ri.20260202.16},
  abstract = {Terrorism is a global challenge that has profoundly affected many countries, including Pakistan, where Khyber Pakhtunkhwa has been the most severely impacted province. Among all sectors, education has suffered significant disruption, and the once-stable Pashtun society has been destabilized, creating fear, insecurity, and social fragmentation. Terrorism has not only damaged infrastructure but also weakened social cohesion, trust, and peaceful coexistence among community members. This study explores teachers’ perceptions regarding the impact of terrorism on Pashtun society and examines the need and role of peace education in promoting peace in affected areas, including how peace education fosters social harmony. The study also explored the role of teachers in promoting peace in terrorism-affected areas. The population consisted of 200 randomly selected secondary school teachers from Malakand and Swat districts (100 teachers from each district). A quantitative research design was employed, and data were collected using a five-point Likert scale questionnaire. Descriptive statistics were analyzed using SPSS. Findings reveal that terrorism has significantly disrupted Pashtun society, while teachers strongly support the implementation of peace education. The study highlights the crucial role of teachers in promoting peace, tolerance, and social cohesion, concluding that peace education can mitigate violence and help rebuild resilient and harmonious communities in terrorism-affected areas.},
 year = {2026}
}

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