3. Results
3.1. Concepts and Definition of Indigenous Knowledge Systems
Indigenous knowledge is one of the concepts that do not have a unanimous perception. Many definitions have been made by several scholars and none of these definitions are essentially contradictory. They overlap in many aspects, each emphasizing given aspects of indigenous knowledge. For instance, some focus on the development aspect. Indigenous knowledge is the local rural communities knowledge which are unique to a given societies culture
| [21] | Paul Sillitoe. Indigenous Knowledge in Development. 2002. |
| [26] | Warren, D. M. "Indigenous knowledge Systems and Development." 1990. Background paper for Seminar Series on Sociology and Natural Resource Management. The World Bank, Washington, D. C. December 3, 1990. |
[21, 26]
. It contrasts with the international knowledge system (scientific knowledge) which is generated through a global network of universities and research institutes
| [22] | Paul Sillitoe, Alan Kicker, Johan Pottier. Participating in Development: Approaches to Indigenous Knowledge. 2002. |
[22]
. This means Indigenous knowledge systems are acquired through living in a certain society rather than through formal education. Grenier 1998 presents a more or less similar definition to Warren: “Indigenous knowledge is unique, traditional, local knowledge existing within and developed around specific conditions of women and men indigenous to a particular geographic area"
| [17] | Louise Grenier. Working with Indigenous Knowledge: 1998. A Guide for Researchers. |
[17]
. This definition excludes the body of knowledge that the local people learn from outside. Sillitoe 2002 defines indigenous knowledge as focusing on one of the domains of indigenous knowledge
| [21] | Paul Sillitoe. Indigenous Knowledge in Development. 2002. |
[21]
. According to Sillitoe 2002; Indigenous knowledge in a development context may relate to any knowledge held more or less collectively by the population, informing understanding of the world
| [22] | Paul Sillitoe, Alan Kicker, Johan Pottier. Participating in Development: Approaches to Indigenous Knowledge. 2002. |
[22]
.
Indigenous knowledge may pertain to any domain, particularly in natural resource management in development. It is community-based embedded in and conditioned by local tradition. It is currently informed understanding inculcated into individuals from birth onwards, structuring how they interface with their environments. This knowledge also continually informed by outside intelligence. It is distribution is fragmentary Unlike Grenier, Sillitoe 2002 presents indigenous knowledge as a body of knowledge that constitutes both the knowledge of the local community and the knowledge of outsiders. He further said it is widely shared locally on the whole than specialized scientific knowledge, no one person, authority, or social group knows it all, rather asymmetically distributed based on each social group gender, age, sex, or social status…etc (Sillitoe, 2002). It is also the heritage of practical everyday life, which is fluid and constantly changing
| [22] | Paul Sillitoe, Alan Kicker, Johan Pottier. Participating in Development: Approaches to Indigenous Knowledge. 2002. |
[22]
. It characterized by widely shared locally developed everyday practically knowledge. As a result, it has some notion that makes it similar to culture. This body of traditional knowledge has developed over generations as a product of environmental interactions. Indigenous knowledge is not static but dynamic
| [4] | Bekele Shiferaw, and Stein T. Holden. Farm-level benefits to investments for mitigating land degradation: empirical evidence from Ethiopia. 2001. |
[4]
. This knowledge is one of the concepts that have been called by different terms. This relates to the rise in the interest in studying Indigenous knowledge, and variously termed "ethno-science”
| [26] | Warren, D. M. "Indigenous knowledge Systems and Development." 1990. Background paper for Seminar Series on Sociology and Natural Resource Management. The World Bank, Washington, D. C. December 3, 1990. |
[26]
. 'Indigenous knowledge system, 'Traditional knowledge, community environmental knowledge, Indigenous technical knowledge (ITK)
| [14] | Howes and R. Chambers. The Uses of Indigenous Technical Knowledge in Development. 1979. |
[14]
, people science’, Folk ecology’ local knowledge 'village science. Robert Chambers (1979) has reviewed these concepts and found a problem with most of them. For instance, local knowledge has negative connotations because it implies rural people know their local environments but denies them the world-view and conceptual rationalization of phenomena of universal importance. The term indigenous also accused because it doesn't imply knowledge borrowed from or being influenced by knowledge from outside. It only implies that the knowledge originated exclusively in an area. This hardly happens in real life. As a result of this Robert Chambers (1979) argues 'rural people's knowledge is “ […] the whole system of knowledge including concepts, beliefs, and perceptions, the stock of knowledge, and whereby the process acquired, stored and transmitted to the rural people. Although it has a dozen of names, none of these terms are all-encompassing and skip away from criticism. Regarding this Sillitoe 2002 says “ A problem with several terms, including indigenous knowledge, is that they conjure up and reinforce in the mind of development practitioners within the idea of social research through some sort of unique traditional sociocultural heritage
| [22] | Paul Sillitoe, Alan Kicker, Johan Pottier. Participating in Development: Approaches to Indigenous Knowledge. 2002. |
[22]
.
This knowledge what scholars argue mostly held by local indigenous people. Although defining Indigenous peoples is still problematic, many writers try to define Indigenous people. This definition overlaps in many aspects although each emphasizes a given aspect. Indigenous people are categorized as communities having relatively small populations with ancestral cultures of their own, typically by others, and remained largely invisible to members of the world's dominant societies. This definition has also some negative connotation because it considers Indigenous people as invisible. Considers the defining characteristics feature of Indigenous people to be their original habitation of the land they have lived on from time immemorial. Indigenous knowledge has been taught as the opposite of Western scientific knowledge
| [22] | Paul Sillitoe, Alan Kicker, Johan Pottier. Participating in Development: Approaches to Indigenous Knowledge. 2002. |
[22]
. This dichotomy established to the disadvantaged of Indigenous knowledge. Scientific knowledge is commonly assumed to the sophisticated, advanced, and valid while whatever rural people may know will be unsystematic, imprecise, superficial and often playing wrong
| [14] | Howes and R. Chambers. The Uses of Indigenous Technical Knowledge in Development. 1979. |
[14]
. These myths about indigenous knowledge and scientific knowledge affect the utilization of local knowledge and make it to be considered an obstacle to development. But indigenous knowledge is not an obstacle to improvement rather it is an optimum solution to rural development.
Hatch in 1976 presented that Western researchers believe their modern technology is infinitely superior to that of local people's knowledge
| [14] | Howes and R. Chambers. The Uses of Indigenous Technical Knowledge in Development. 1979. |
[14]
. Beside, rural communities knowledge often superior to the outsiders scientific knowledge
| [14] | Howes and R. Chambers. The Uses of Indigenous Technical Knowledge in Development. 1979. |
[14]
. According to Moore 1980, the advantage of local knowledge over outsiders knowledge including environmental soundness, low capital cost, labour intensiveness, oriented towards supplying fundamental needs through use of local materials and skill [….] (Atteh, 1992). Recently, scholars like Sillitoe in 2002 present an idea that against the commonly believed stark opposition between indigenous knowledge and scientific
| [21] | Paul Sillitoe. Indigenous Knowledge in Development. 2002. |
[21]
. Some scholarly writers argue that to conflate others traditional knowledge into indigenous categories in contrast with Western scientific knowledge are insupportable due to overlooked difference within, and similarities exist between multiple local and scientific perspectives
| [22] | Paul Sillitoe, Alan Kicker, Johan Pottier. Participating in Development: Approaches to Indigenous Knowledge. 2002. |
[22]
. Conflating other knowledge traditions into indigenous category and contrasting it with western scientific knowledge criticized in to four grounds: 1) First these different knowledge systems may be similar in essentials and contents; 2) second, certain parallels in the methods they use to investigate. 3) Third, since is no less culturally located than other knowledge traditions. And, 4) finally, perhaps most disturbing, it privileges the scientific perspective to distinguish it from other knowledge traditions
| [21] | Paul Sillitoe. Indigenous Knowledge in Development. 2002. |
[21]
.
He further said "This dichotomy overlooks anthropological knowledge, which sits uneasily between the two spheres of knowledge
| [22] | Paul Sillitoe, Alan Kicker, Johan Pottier. Participating in Development: Approaches to Indigenous Knowledge. 2002. |
[22]
. It is questionable to attempt to distinguish Indigenous knowledge on the formal ground like experimentation
| [21] | Paul Sillitoe. Indigenous Knowledge in Development. 2002. |
[21]
. This is because local people are also doing their experiment
| [21] | Paul Sillitoe. Indigenous Knowledge in Development. 2002. |
[21]
. According to Sillitoe’s 2002, the relationship between Indigenous knowledge and scientific knowledge viewed in the spectrum of relations in the following way: "At the end of the spectrum, we have poor rural farmers who have informal education, who might constitute real Indigenous knowledge derived from their cultural traditions. At the other end of the continuum we have Western scientists who are trying to incorporate some empathy with local perceptions and practices into their work; In between, we have various inter-generational of local insider and global outsider knowledge depending on the community of origin and formal education
| [22] | Paul Sillitoe, Alan Kicker, Johan Pottier. Participating in Development: Approaches to Indigenous Knowledge. 2002. |
[22]
.
3.2. Indigenous Knowledge System in Ethiopia
Ethiopia with a large number of ethnic groups and diverse cultures has indigenous knowledge systems that are worth studying and transferring. Some of the major areas that indigenous knowledge has been used by Ethiopia people include in agriculture practices (Plant breeding and harvesting), crop-food processing and preservation, such as local drink like Tela, Checka, medicinal plants, soil fertility preservation and conservation
| [4] | Bekele Shiferaw, and Stein T. Holden. Farm-level benefits to investments for mitigating land degradation: empirical evidence from Ethiopia. 2001. |
[4]
. For instance, the Konso people practice traditional terracing systems to protect the soil from erosion
| [4] | Bekele Shiferaw, and Stein T. Holden. Farm-level benefits to investments for mitigating land degradation: empirical evidence from Ethiopia. 2001. |
[4]
. Many rural communities in Ethiopia have rich knowledge of medicinal plants. This and other indigenous knowledge system and techniques, local communities adapt their local environment and ago-ecology. Their knowledge of their environment makes them create environmentally sound mechanisms and techniques. Despite the above facts, Indigenous knowledge in Ethiopia has been underutilized by both national government and development agents and planners
| [4] | Bekele Shiferaw, and Stein T. Holden. Farm-level benefits to investments for mitigating land degradation: empirical evidence from Ethiopia. 2001. |
[4]
. Mostly we tend to use in official development, only the Western scientific innovations that sometimes do not fit with our cultural and environmental conditions. These scientific innovations are easily imported into our country through the current international system known as globalization. As a result of this, the youth is losing its attitude of respect for the cultures and practices of his/her parents and grandparents. This has become a great barrier to the utilization and transformation of indigenous knowledge. Indigenous local communities agricultural practices must not be treated as backward and primitive
| [4] | Bekele Shiferaw, and Stein T. Holden. Farm-level benefits to investments for mitigating land degradation: empirical evidence from Ethiopia. 2001. |
[4]
. Rather we can use them in our development endeavors. Moreover, we have to try to identify the record and preserve the foundations of Ethiopia's indigenous knowledge through teaching, apparent-ship, oral traditions, and storytelling.
3.2.1. Domains of Indigenous Knowledge Systems
The most common arenas in which Indigenous knowledge is well known and employed include: development projects (Planning and implementations), natural resource management, health (preventive health care, healing, and medicines, saving and lending, and conflict resolution to mention some. "Indigenous knowledge is also important in the area of building technology and metallurgy. Through the above-mentioned and other domains, Indigenous knowledge systems have been valuable resources for the local peoples because of the following reasons. Firstly and most importantly, the only available resource the local people have their indigenous knowledge (Moore, 1980). Secondly, local communities indigenous knowledge is the basis for sustainable use of natural resources in rural communities
| [4] | Bekele Shiferaw, and Stein T. Holden. Farm-level benefits to investments for mitigating land degradation: empirical evidence from Ethiopia. 2001. |
[4]
. Finally, it is locally available and cheaper techniques, and has been proven to be valid, effective and workable to the specific local villages. The last, but not the least it also constitutes the basis for popular or grass-roots level participation by farmers and other people
| [4] | Bekele Shiferaw, and Stein T. Holden. Farm-level benefits to investments for mitigating land degradation: empirical evidence from Ethiopia. 2001. |
[4]
. In the following paragraph an attempt is made to discuss some of the major areas of Indigenous knowledge in health, agriculture, development, and crop-food preservation. Traditional healing systems include the preparation and use of traditional medicines (medicinal plants); healing through the medium of spirits and through performances of ritual. Traditional medicines in general, and African traditional medicines (A.TM) in particular are considered by some authors as holistic. This is because it attempts to go beyond the boundaries of the physical body into to spiritual which some times called mind-body medicine. The expertise cover not just gynecology, pre, and postnatal care, but as well both preventive and curative. As a result the World Health Organization (1975, 1976, and 1978) has recognized the contribution of traditional medicines to psychiatry. The contribution of Indigenous knowledge in health and healing is incorporated into global knowledge pool through several ways. Most of African countries rural farmers have been a long trend of employing indigenous local knowledge through their plant domestication and multiplying, and breeding. Their knowledge includes a selection of plants to breed which involves decisions based on deep and time-testing knowledge of different plant species and different varieties within a given species. In this regard, ENSET (Enset ventricosum) can be considered as an embodiment. It has been bred, processed, and preserved in culturally and environmentally sound ways. Another domain in which indigenous knowledge of local people has been used in the area of social and economic development. Despite, indigenous knowledge system were neglected by local and national development planner in the past, rather than considering it as a national resources for development planning (Warren, 1980). For this reason Howes and Chambers characterize Indigenous knowledge as "rich but underutilized" (Warren, 1980). Even though Indigenous knowledge has several elements that can be used for development, almost all development endeavors neglect Indigenous knowledge.
Non-utilization of these potential results from a development bias created by the interaction between Africa and Europe through political, cultural and technological colonization of the former. That means the belief that Indigenous knowledge is not useful for development is deep-rooted and has a long history. In most developing parts of the world including Africa development is dependent on those who developed the programs and technologies imitated from developing countries (ibid). These programs and technologies don't go hand in hand with the culture of Indigenous people or local societies. It is “development from the above" used as the central planning of programs and projects without local consultation
| [26] | Warren, D. M. "Indigenous knowledge Systems and Development." 1990. Background paper for Seminar Series on Sociology and Natural Resource Management. The World Bank, Washington, D. C. December 3, 1990. |
[26]
. Until recently local people have been considered as not active and responsive to their developmental concerns. "Local human and natural resources have hardly used, the focus of most development is not directly at things, which matters to and will benefit rural people". Most severely Indigenous knowledge considered as unsystematic, imprecise, superficial, and often plain wrong
| [14] | Howes and R. Chambers. The Uses of Indigenous Technical Knowledge in Development. 1979. |
[14]
.
On the other hand, Riley and Brokensha 1988 advocated for the incorporation of local people in development projects. Brokensha (1986) further said”…it is essential first to examine what farmers did before telling them what they should do"
| [7] | D. Brokensha. Participation and Indigenous Knowledge in Rural Development; 1986. Awa, N. E. 1989. Participation and Indigenous Knowledge in Rural Development. Knowledge, 10(4), 304-316. |
[7]
. One of the main reasons of involving local people in development is that there are aspects of environmental information which only the local communities can supply. That means they have a great deal of knowledge about their environment than outsiders. Atteh 1992 emphasizes that involving local people in people in planning enables them to meet the goals and needs that are important to and also fit the physical, social, and cultural environments of the people
| [2] | Atteh, D. Indigenous Local Knowledge as a Key to Local-level Development: Possibilities, Constraints and Planning Issues in the Context of Africa. 1989. Studies in Technology and Social Change, No. 20. Ames, Iowa: Technology and Social Change Program, Iowa State University. |
[2]
. Participation of the local people in things that affect their lives is a moral claim". Many scholars praise the collaboration of the local people and the development agents/planners for effective development programs or projects. For instance, Warren said that "to have development and to have people understand how development is to be applied to their particular case, developers need to communicate with developers"
| [26] | Warren, D. M. "Indigenous knowledge Systems and Development." 1990. Background paper for Seminar Series on Sociology and Natural Resource Management. The World Bank, Washington, D. C. December 3, 1990. |
[26]
. Atteh 1992 emphasizes the advantage of collaboration between local people and outside development agents in the following way: The overall objective is that for each local community, local resources with appropriate support form outside where necessary through mobilizing resources to produce good and services to sustainably improve the quality of local people live and livelihood, and lay the foundation for self-sustaining, and self – reliant growth and development. This will reduce spatial and structural inequalities in the standard of living and also in the dichotomy between urban and rural areas
| [2] | Atteh, D. Indigenous Local Knowledge as a Key to Local-level Development: Possibilities, Constraints and Planning Issues in the Context of Africa. 1989. Studies in Technology and Social Change, No. 20. Ames, Iowa: Technology and Social Change Program, Iowa State University. |
[2]
. That means utilizing Indigenous knowledge in combination with scientific knowledge is not only important for effective development but also reduces inequality in the standard of living between the urban and the rural people standards of living between the urban and rural people.
Generally, when design or implement development programs and projects three scenarios can be observed: The development strategy either relies entirely or substantially on the Indigenous knowledge; overrides Indigenous knowledge; or incorporates Indigenous knowledge. Indeed, the use of indigenous knowledge not easy rather, it encountered with varied constraints. Some of the major problems that hinder the utilization of indigenous local knowledge (ILK) are the lack of written knowledge of the local people; the change in the conditions, in which indigenous knowledge has been developed and derived, including its locational specification, method of storing and transmitting, lack of precise measuring system, and little or no sympathy of African elites are among others
| [2] | Atteh, D. Indigenous Local Knowledge as a Key to Local-level Development: Possibilities, Constraints and Planning Issues in the Context of Africa. 1989. Studies in Technology and Social Change, No. 20. Ames, Iowa: Technology and Social Change Program, Iowa State University. |
[2]
. From multiple domains of indigenous knowledge crop preservation is one of the most commonly practices by rural communities. Traditional crop-food preservation methods have developed as an art handed down from one generation to another with little or no understanding of the reason why certain things are done"
| [16] | Kordylas, J. M. Processing and Preservation of Tropical and Sub-Tropical Foods. 1991. Macmillan Education Ltd., London, 49-79. |
[16]
. These methods are mostly found in traditional societies. In these societies like other scientific innovations, modern scientific crop-food preservation methods are also inaccessible. As a result, traditional societies in developing countries manipulate their indigenous knowledge to preserve their crop food. Because the focus of this study is crop-food preservation, in the following sections an attempt is made to review the concept of crop-food preservation in general, traditional preservation (storage) of cereal grains in particular.
3.2.2. Indigenous Knowledge System to Rural Food Security and Resilience Building
Local communities indigenous knowledge system (IKS) refers to the convoluted set of local peoples understanding, experience and skills developed by indigenous communities through generations of interaction with their natural surroundings
| [6] | Chhavi Chaudhary & Kajal Chaudhary, ‘Harnessing Indigenous Knowledge for Climate Adaptation and Mitigation’, (2024) Special Issue on SDGs, JSS Journal for Legal Studies and Research, 123-135, Available at https://www.jsslawcollege.in/jsslc-online-journal/ |
[6]
. These system and practices includes methods for agriculture, forestry, water and land management, and disaster preparedness, all of which offer sustainable solutions for adapting to environmental change
| [3] | Awuor Ponge. Integrating Indigenous Knowledge for Food Security: 2012. Perspectives from the Millennium. |
| [6] | Chhavi Chaudhary & Kajal Chaudhary, ‘Harnessing Indigenous Knowledge for Climate Adaptation and Mitigation’, (2024) Special Issue on SDGs, JSS Journal for Legal Studies and Research, 123-135, Available at https://www.jsslawcollege.in/jsslc-online-journal/ |
[3, 6]
. The impact of climate change poses a major and highly growing treat to the rural communities food security, and projected effect includes higher temperatures, water scarcities, land degradation, disruption of ecosystems, and losses of biodiversity that could seriously compromise agriculture ability to feed the most marginalize and vulnerable communities, and thus impede progress towards the reduction of hungers, malnutrition, and poverty
| [6] | Chhavi Chaudhary & Kajal Chaudhary, ‘Harnessing Indigenous Knowledge for Climate Adaptation and Mitigation’, (2024) Special Issue on SDGs, JSS Journal for Legal Studies and Research, 123-135, Available at https://www.jsslawcollege.in/jsslc-online-journal/ |
[6]
. To ensure that climate change action and decisions making recognizes and support local priorities and needs, it is critical to be aware of what is already being local people experienced on the ground
| [6] | Chhavi Chaudhary & Kajal Chaudhary, ‘Harnessing Indigenous Knowledge for Climate Adaptation and Mitigation’, (2024) Special Issue on SDGs, JSS Journal for Legal Studies and Research, 123-135, Available at https://www.jsslawcollege.in/jsslc-online-journal/ |
[6]
. Without understanding of local communities realities, decisions may not only fail to assist those in need but may inadvertently undermine local indigenous communities resilience and intensify their vulnerability to the impact of climate change. Indigenous knowledge systems and practices are the major resources for adapting climate change, as well to ensure food security. Though, local people indigenous knowledge system embedded within rural communities play a critical role in sustaining agricultural practices, preserving biodiversity, and ensuring nutritional resilience
| [10] | Fernando. Role of Indigenous Knowledge Systems in Food Security in Africa. 2024. AJFST: 092. |
[10]
. Thus communities have long tradition in cultivating diverse crop varieties adapted to their local environmental conditions, and this biodiversity not solely enhance resilience to crop pests and diseases, but also ensure food availability throughout the season
| [10] | Fernando. Role of Indigenous Knowledge Systems in Food Security in Africa. 2024. AJFST: 092. |
[10]
. This play a pivotal role in promoting rural communities food security through sustainable agricultural practices, biodiversity conservation, and communities resilience to the impact of climate change. Although, embracing and integrating these traditional indigenous practices with modern scientific knowledge system and practices can foster inclusive and sustainable development pathways for rural communities that can ensure nutritious food access to the rural people.
3.3. Crop-food Preservation
Crop-food preservation is not a recent phenomenon rather it has been used by human societies for a long period. From ancient times, human beings have given some attention to crop-food preservation] It has evolved from time to time in correspondence with changes in human culture and way of life. These preservation processes are both the results of accidental and intended innovation. Cheese and Butter, wine, raisins, and parched grains were among the products of early crop-food conservation. It was when modern science tried to investigate the causes of decomposition, that a wider application and discovery of preservation began. One of the most known theories before 1960 was the theory of "Spontaneous generation" by pasture. It tries to explain all changes in crop food. The process of preservation may generally classified as drying, heating, refrigeration, and the use of chemicals. In the following section, an attempt is made to review the definition of crop food preservation.
Kordylas defines crop-food preservation as "a treatment of crop food to maintain its quality and prevent its deterioration
| [16] | Kordylas, J. M. Processing and Preservation of Tropical and Sub-Tropical Foods. 1991. Macmillan Education Ltd., London, 49-79. |
[16]
. In this definition, he presents the maintenance of quality and prevention of deterioration as the basic purposes of crop food preservation. In addition to this, saving is also one of the main purposes of crop-food preservation
| [9] | Farlane. Specialist study of stored products problems in Ethiopia. 1969. |
| [16] | Kordylas, J. M. Processing and Preservation of Tropical and Sub-Tropical Foods. 1991. Macmillan Education Ltd., London, 49-79. |
[9, 16]
. Sometimes, it is for the sake of replanting or sale when prices are better. To prevent and control spoilage in crop-food, the causes must be identified. Kordylas in 1990 considers the preservation of crop food from spoilage and controlling the reduction of the eating qualities of crop-food materials as reasons for crop-food preservation. The causes of crop-food spoilage are internal factors such as enzymes which are contained in all plants and animals materials, and the external environment include living organisms (plant and animals), temperature conditions, moisture conditions, light, and oxygen. The most important living organisms that cause crop-food spoilage are: Bacteria, yeasts, molds, insects, and rodents. Temperature changes may cause damage to crop directly or indirectly. Directly it causes damage to crop food in its outward state while indirectly it also leads to changes by helping spoilage agents such as bacteria and enzymes to increase their activities. When moisture increases in a crop food, it leads to crop food spoilage by encouraging bacteria, yeasts, and mold growth. Oxygen encourages the development of unpleasant flavors and possible harmful chemical changes. It also leads to the distraction of some vitamins in the crop food affected. Therefore, crop-food preservation methods and techniques are aimed at eliminating or restricting these numerous factors that cause or promote crop-food spoilage
| [16] | Kordylas, J. M. Processing and Preservation of Tropical and Sub-Tropical Foods. 1991. Macmillan Education Ltd., London, 49-79. |
[16]
.
3.3.1. Indigenous Knowledge System in Crop-food Preservation
Indigenous method of cereal grain storage are deeply rooted in the cultural practices and environmental conditions of the regions where these cereal grains are grown. These methods often involve the use of natural materials and traditional structures to protect grains from pests, moisture, and other environmental factors. Kordylas 1990 in his book Processing and Preservation of tropical and sub-tropical crop food reviewed the most common traditional methods of storing cereal grains in tropical Africa. According to him: these storage facilities include granaries or mud silos, various forms of barn or wooden crib, metal drums, hessian sacks, plastic bags, baskets, gourds, dugout underground pits, the roof spaces of living houses (especially in the kitchen when it gets quite hot), clay pots with thick walls and more recently, in airtight metal bins or containers constructed by the local farmers themselves. Granaries are like silos and have been used for the storage of un-shelled cereal grains in various countries of Africa for many centuries. It is mostly constructed from clay soil that holds 0.5 to 10 tons of grain
| [16] | Kordylas, J. M. Processing and Preservation of Tropical and Sub-Tropical Foods. 1991. Macmillan Education Ltd., London, 49-79. |
[16]
.
3.3.2. The Storage Environment of Cereal Grains
Regarding the storage environment, Kordylas 1990 considers the climate because it has a great influence on the rate of spoilage. Insect pests are high in areas where relative humidity is high. Generally, temperature is the overriding factor that influences insect multiplication. As a result, the storage of cereal grain has to be prepared from materials that don't easily pass on changes in outside temperature and moisture to the content. The location should be well drained and away from areas liable to flood. The storage must be rodent-proof (resistant to rats and mice) and waterproof. If this is done, the storage becomes capable of keeping the grain cool, dry, and protected from insects, birds, rodents, and other animals, and also from dust. It is also capable of keeping the stored grains at an even temperature. That means temperature changes outside the storage unit should not affect the temperature of the grain
| [16] | Kordylas, J. M. Processing and Preservation of Tropical and Sub-Tropical Foods. 1991. Macmillan Education Ltd., London, 49-79. |
[16]
.
3.3.3. Underground Pit Storage of Cereal Grains
Underground pits or underground chambers are one of the traditional methods used by local farmers to preserve crop food. Yemane and Yilma in 1989 define it as "a hole that is used to keep grain". It is used to store grain in many parts of the world, including South America, the Middle East, and West
| [25] | Yemane K., and Yilma H. Food and grain losses in traditional storage facilities in three areas of Ethiopia. 1989. |
[25]
. Kordylas (1989) presents the existence of underground pits in tropical Africa. He said cereal grains that are stored in underground pits are usually threshed sorghum, maize, or wheat
| [16] | Kordylas, J. M. Processing and Preservation of Tropical and Sub-Tropical Foods. 1991. Macmillan Education Ltd., London, 49-79. |
[16]
. According to him the advantage of pits or underground storage chambers is keeping the grain cool and well hidden from theft and external disturbances. When such underground storage chambers or pits are airtight they can keep grain free from insects
| [16] | Kordylas, J. M. Processing and Preservation of Tropical and Sub-Tropical Foods. 1991. Macmillan Education Ltd., London, 49-79. |
[16]
. This is because insects need oxygen, water (moisture), and warmth to live and multiply
| [16] | Kordylas, J. M. Processing and Preservation of Tropical and Sub-Tropical Foods. 1991. Macmillan Education Ltd., London, 49-79. |
[16]
. So, inaccessibility of these conditions in underground pits makes insects unable to live and multiply in pits. But when they are rarely airtight and moist underground pits are not very effective in keeping grain well stored. "To keep underground pits dry, farmers line them with straw to absorb any moisture keeping in from above or below"
| [16] | Kordylas, J. M. Processing and Preservation of Tropical and Sub-Tropical Foods. 1991. Macmillan Education Ltd., London, 49-79. |
[16]
.
In another part of the tropics, grain is also stored in "wet pits" As the wet gain respires (breaths), it quickly uses up any trapped air underground, causing insects and molds to be destroyed. It is also covered by dung which also uses oxygen as it decomposes, so it reduces the available oxygen. With a high level of moisture in underground pits, the grain ferments and becomes sour, but may nonetheless store well in wet pits
| [16] | Kordylas, J. M. Processing and Preservation of Tropical and Sub-Tropical Foods. 1991. Macmillan Education Ltd., London, 49-79. |
[16]
. According to Kordylas (1990) to improve underground pit for better storage: the pit must be well covered, sealed and where possible shelters built over them. They must be kept closed and open as infrequently as possible; otherwise, air is allowed in and encourages mold growth. An outlet can be made in the center of the cover to enable grain to be taken out. Underground pits can be improved by lining the floor with layers of dried grass or cereal straw and covered with tree bark
| [16] | Kordylas, J. M. Processing and Preservation of Tropical and Sub-Tropical Foods. 1991. Macmillan Education Ltd., London, 49-79. |
[16]
.
3.4. Indigenous Crop-food Preservation Method in Ethiopia
Traditional grain storage mechanisms mostly practices in rural parts of Ethiopia, which is mainly due to its cost-effectiveness, use of local materials and knowledge to adaptation to local environment, and promote food security and agricultural sustainability. These rural communities cereal grain storage methods honed over generation, provides essential protection against pests which allow communities to store food for consumption, seeds, market, and to manage poor harvests. These local communities mechanism and practices are often inexpensiveness, relying on local and readily available materials and traditional knowledge. This makes easily accessible to the rural villagers who may not have access to modern infrastructure. The use of local resource and indigenous knowledge to establish grain storage facilities promotes sustainable agricultural practices aligning with food storage, local ecological conditions, and cultural values. Most importantly traditional grain storage mechanism are often highly adapted to the specific agro-climate zones, and cultural practices of the area, and help communities, particularly smallholders to secure a consistent source of food supply throughout the year and buffer against poor harvests. Further, beyond individual households storage, some traditional grain storage system, like cereal banks serve a crucial community function through pooling resources and sharing stored grains during time of drought and food scarcity.
While considering the socio-economic function of traditional grain storage practices of rural people, it enable to ensure households food security, allow communities to survive the period between harvests and providing a buffer against climate change related food production variability. These local communities indigenous system enable rural people to strengthen their emergency preparedness through building their resilience capacity. While managing seasonal food shortage and other disasters. Through storing surpluses agricultural products these traditional storage mechanism enable communities to manage the unpredictably nature of food production, which is often heavily influenced by the impact of climate change. In addition, these shared grain storage practices, from communal effort in building storage structure to managing harvests significantly strengthen social cohesion among rural villagers. Economically traditional grain storage practices of rural people have diverse important roles, including ensure households food security, provides a store of value for saving and future cash needs, stabilize market supply via bridging seasonal food gaps, and allow for speculative gains by capitalizing on inter-seasonal price difference. These mechanism support the entire agricultural value chain from individual farmers to the broader market dynamics. Traditionally stored grains serve as a form of saving through providing a financial cushion for future needs that reduce unexpected expenses. Considering the environmental benefits of local communities traditional grain storage practices, it contribute by being eco-friendly and locally sustainable that creates a low-oxygen atmosphere and inhabit spoilage causing organisms like insects and fungi. This mainly because of it relies on long-standing local communities indigenous knowledge system and practices. Ethiopian Farmers like the rest of the world local farmers develop their knowledge in crop-food preservation. In this regard, the fermentation process is one of the major areas in indigenous crop-food preservation in Ethiopian rural people. Products such as sorghum, maize, or other cereal are fermented and made into alcoholic beverages. "Ethiopian rural farmers are also well known for their knowledge of fermented foods and drinks". Likewise, local crop foods like “Injera” from the flowers of cereal crops (mainly teff), and “Kocho" from inset are the results of the carefully prepared fermentation process. Another area in crop food preservation is Indigenous storage of cereal grains by the local farms.
3.4.1. Indigenous Methods of Cereal Grains Storage
According to Yemane and Yilma 1989 increasing crop-food productivity was not the only solution to food insecurity in Ethiopia but also controlling loss of grain in fields. The prevention of those losses increases the availability of crop food
| [25] | Yemane K., and Yilma H. Food and grain losses in traditional storage facilities in three areas of Ethiopia. 1989. |
[25]
. So, a proper method of storage should be made. To do so, local farmers have been using their methods of storage of cereal grain for long periods. Yemane and Yilma 1989 classified these storage facilities into two: temporary and permanent storage facilities
| [25] | Yemane K., and Yilma H. Food and grain losses in traditional storage facilities in three areas of Ethiopia. 1989. |
[25]
. The temporary storage facilities include systems such as Akomada, Silicha, and cabinets (all sack-type containers made of goats, cows, or oxen skin), sacks, barrels, earthenware, jars, etc. On the other hand understanding pits and Gottera are mainly permanent storage facilities. Apart from this unshackled maize cobs, which are used for seed, are hung in the huts above the fireplace, using the following section, an attempt is made to discuss the general condition of underground pits in Ethiopia.
3.4.2. Origin and Development of Grain Storage and Reserve Practices
The term food reserve and grain storage strategies refers to a stock of food for security reasons as an insurance against food shortfalls due to adverse socio-economic, policy and biophysical factors, including extreme weather conditions, social instability, price shocks, and inadequacy of agricultural inputs
| [18] | Messay Mulugeta. Food reserve system in Ethiopia: Assessment of the current implementation technicalities and policy recommendations. 2015. Journal of Sustainable Development in Africa (Volume 17, No. 5, 2015). |
[18]
. Regards to the origin of grain or food reserve system, reserve stocks of stable food is old as human civilization, were practiced in ancient Egypt, China, and Roman Empire
| [18] | Messay Mulugeta. Food reserve system in Ethiopia: Assessment of the current implementation technicalities and policy recommendations. 2015. Journal of Sustainable Development in Africa (Volume 17, No. 5, 2015). |
[18]
. Efficient post-harvest handling storage can tremendously contributes to socio-economic empowerment in most developing nations. Rural communities use traditional storage containers for storing food grains for their own needs. These storage structures are comparatively cheap, eco-friendly, and impact high shelf life to the stored commodities. These traditional storage systems could be applied in modern storage areas with minor modification could save food commodities that would be damaged by insects. A number of factors might influence cereal grain storage behavior of rural local communities, first the decision to store crops is influenced by the types and quantity of crops to be stored and storage facility and crop protection technology at its disposal. In this regards, the likelihood of storing crops is expected to increase with the quantity that a household can dispose into different uses. The likelihood to store crops increase if villagers perceive their storage facilities can withstand damage to the crops, despite the nature of the products is crucial in determining whether, and more importantly for how long households will store harvests, since the number of crops are not suited for being stored while grain - the most commonly grown crops in Ethiopia, can be generally be stored for a considerable period of time, yet some grain are more susceptible to specific types of storage ore pest related damage than other. Secondly, location specific factors, such as agro-ecology and climate, proximity to near market, and seasonal price gaps are also among important factors that influence whether and how much of the harvest is stored. villagers are less likely to store crops if they resides in an area where the relative humidity is high, since crop rotting is mote likely to occur in such areas. Where as in low rainfall areas, a higher temperature could reduce the moisture in stored crops and increase the likelihood of storing crops, as lower storage losses are seen in well-dried crops. However, higher temperature could also creates a favourable environment for insect infestation in wetter areas. Thirdly, cereal grain storing decisions of rural communities are also influence by individual household characteristics, like family size as it determines the households food need and storage depletion rates as well as the availability of labour to care for stored crops. The wealth of the households also important factor for storage decisions as it might be associated with time and risk preference, and access to capital for investments in improved storage methods and facilities.
3.5. Underground Pit Storage in Ethiopia
In Ethiopia rural agrarian communities use different storage method for their grain. Despite those traditional storage structures were not effective in protecting the grain from insect, microbial infestation and environmental factors
| [13] | Haile Tesfaye. Indigenous Knowledge of Farmer on Grain Storage and Management Practice in Ethiopia. 2020. Food Sci & Nutri Tech 2020, 5(4): 000224. |
[13]
. To this concern rural farmers have indigenous knowledge storage management practices to cop up with post-harvest losses. This traditional wisdom and methods of storage can protect cereal grain commodities from insect infestation for substantially long periods. In order to reduce the losses incurred after harvesting, the rural villagers takes measures such as sufficient drying before storage which are moisture proof and are adequately aired
| [13] | Haile Tesfaye. Indigenous Knowledge of Farmer on Grain Storage and Management Practice in Ethiopia. 2020. Food Sci & Nutri Tech 2020, 5(4): 000224. |
[13]
. Though, to reduce the huge post-harvest loss and improve rural communities food security is the recognition, promotion, and utilization of indigenous knowledge, skill and practices in cereal grain preservation and storage. This practiced over generation and proved flexible to cope with the change associated with climate variability. The greater proportion of grains produced by resource poor rural villagers store cereal grain to facilitate the uniform supply of food throughout the year, as well to save it for unforeseen events
| [5] | Chala Gowe, Tizazu Yirga. Review on contribution of indigenous food preparation and preservation techniques to attainment of food security in Ethiopian. 2019. Food Science & Nutrition published by Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
https://doi.org/10.1002/fsn3.1274 |
[5]
. Underground pits in Ethiopia are mainly used in sorghum-producing areas which may be because it is resistant to mold growth"
| [25] | Yemane K., and Yilma H. Food and grain losses in traditional storage facilities in three areas of Ethiopia. 1989. |
[25]
. They added that it is the safest method in terms of securing grain from theft. In some areas farmers add "chipper (mitmita)” to the grain and “Bisana"(Chrotan Macro Stachyn) is kept on top of stored grain. This is because farmers assume they have a burning sensation that kills insects
| [25] | Yemane K., and Yilma H. Food and grain losses in traditional storage facilities in three areas of Ethiopia. 1989. |
[25]
. Among other rural communities in Ethiopia, the Dirasha rural farmer well well-known indigenous knowledge of practices of underground cereal crop preservation mechanisms.
3.6. Indigenous Knowledge System of the D’irasha
Since the D'irasha rely on agriculture, most of their indigenous knowledge system in one way or another is associated with their agricultural activities. Even though the D'irasha does not employ irrigation, chemical fertilizers, and modern technology, they have been producing prosperously for the past many centuries
| [11] | Hansemo Haymela. The history and culture of the Dirasha. 2010. |
[11]
. In addition to their household consumption, they also produce to exchange with people living in the vicinity
| [11] | Hansemo Haymela. The history and culture of the Dirasha. 2010. |
[11]
. In this regards the D'irasha is well known in their teff production in town like Arbaminch, Shashemene, and Hawassa. They are known not only for their surplus production but also for the quality of their products. For many scholars who studied the D’irasha, the main secret of D’irashe productivity is their indigenous system of farming
| [11] | Hansemo Haymela. The history and culture of the Dirasha. 2010. |
[11]
. It involves a series of routine activities from soil conservation up to storage (Preserving) the produced crops.
3.6.1. Targa (Traditional Soil Conservation Method)
One of the indigenous methods of soil and water conservation among the D'irasha is Targa. It is a method of terracing where stalks of sorghum or maize are piled up in rows
| [11] | Hansemo Haymela. The history and culture of the Dirasha. 2010. |
[11]
. Hansemo 2008 in his recent study regarding the D'irasha cultural sorghum presents the meaning and function of Targa in the following way: Targa is ridges and tied ridges that are made of sorghum stalk (Targa and Mona) where moisture is preserved in the soft profile at sorghum root level maintaining the lives of bacteria, fungus, and earth warms for the coming growing season
| [11] | Hansemo Haymela. The history and culture of the Dirasha. 2010. |
[11]
. As we can clearly understand from Hansemo's (2008) explanation, the function of Targa is maintaining as well as improving soft fertility of the soil. The rows of Targa are moved at least every third harvest. So, the Targa of the previous period becomes humus and is used as fertilizer
| [11] | Hansemo Haymela. The history and culture of the Dirasha. 2010. |
[11]
. He also presents the part of Targa, which is divided into compartments called photant
| [11] | Hansemo Haymela. The history and culture of the Dirasha. 2010. |
[11]
. It helps to hold rainwater and conserve soft or stop soil erosion. And finally, many Targas at least seven make up Affa
| [11] | Hansemo Haymela. The history and culture of the Dirasha. 2010. |
[11]
. From this, we learn that the D'irasha have been conserving their soil for many centuries using culturally and environmentally sound indigenous systems. It also seems they have managed to innovate a unique system of soil conservation. Regarding chemical fertilizers, Hansemo argues that "no chemical fertilizer used in the area up to recently although D’irasha is the bread basket for the people who live in the vicinity
| [11] | Hansemo Haymela. The history and culture of the Dirasha. 2010. |
[11]
.
3.6.2. Plant Domestication (Halakot – Moringa Olifera)
Regarding plant domestication, the D'irasha has been planting a tree known as Halakot. Hansemo said this plant is probably what scientists called Moringa Olifera
| [11] | Hansemo Haymela. The history and culture of the Dirasha. 2010. |
[11]
. It is a drought-resistant plant in which its leaf is eaten in different ways. He also considered Halakota as indigenous to the D’irasha
| [11] | Hansemo Haymela. The history and culture of the Dirasha. 2010. |
[11]
although Hansemo, didn’t mention when it was adopted or domesticated by the D'irasha. He argues that it is distributed from here to Arba Minch, Konso, and other places in the surroundings
| [11] | Hansemo Haymela. The history and culture of the Dirasha. 2010. |
[11]
. Local people believe that it can survive in conditions where soil fertility and rain are poor. So it serves as a coping mechanism during drought time. Halakot is known for its medicinal value, nutrition, and water purifying. Regarding its medicinal value, it is advised by doctors because it controls blood pressure and Diabetes. The domestication and the function of Halakot need to be studied to understand more about it and to utilize the immense medicinal and any other function it has for society.
Share This Article
Twitter
Linked In
Facebook
Copy
Download
