English and Kiswahili Lexical Localization in Kibena

Neema Amos Chaula; Pendo Mwashota

doi:doi:10.11648/j.ijll.20241204.11

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English and Kiswahili Lexical Localization in Kibena

Neema Amos Chaula^*, Pendo Mwashota

Published in International Journal of Language and Linguistics (Volume 12, Issue 4)

Received: 5 June 2024 Accepted: 17 July 2024 Published: 29 July 2024

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Abstract

This paper has examined how English and Kiswahili borrowed expressions have been localized in Kibena. The study was guided by Kachru theory of language dominance and deficit, which deals with language contact and lexical borrowing between donor and recipient languages. In this study English and Kiswahili were the donor language and Kibena was the recipient language whereby the Kibena speakers consciously or unconsciously localized English and Kibena words in Kibena during communication process. The study employed a mixed approach and a descriptive research design in data collection, presentation, and discussion. Data were collected from fourteen written texts and fifty respondents through a questionnaire, interview, and documentary review. The data were analyzed using conceptual and rational content analysis methods. The findings underscore the significance of language contact in developing Kibena lexical knowledge through new lexical creation, borrowing, or localization in order to fill the lexical gap and for prestige attainment. The study realized that English and Kiswahili lexical which were localization in Kibena influenced the development of new words in Kibena through loan blend words formation, neologism creation and word to word translation techniques. The language contact was found to be among of the language’s vocabularies enrichment through words borrowing, naturalization, and adaptation. It is recommended that other research be done on the role of the phonological adaptation process of English and Kiswahili words into Kibena during lexical localization.

Published in	International Journal of Language and Linguistics (Volume 12, Issue 4)
DOI	10.11648/j.ijll.20241204.11
Page(s)	152-160
Creative Commons	This is an Open Access article, distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, provided the original work is properly cited.
Copyright	Copyright © The Author(s), 2024. Published by Science Publishing Group

Keywords

Lexical, Localization, Borrowing, Lexical Adaptation, Language Contact

1. Introduction

The situation of languages being dynamic has allowed interaction between languages in the world for a long time with different reasons for contact. For example,

[1, 2]

state that English and Kiswahili have had a long-standing relationship since the beginning of British rule in East Africa. English has been in contact with Kiswahili for more than 90 years in Tanzania

[3]

The development of a language happens when speakers of one language come into contact and start socializing with other different languages

[4]

. The socialization process enhances language adaptation, or borrowing, and new lexical localizations. According to

[5]

a language can develop its vocabulary and status due to economic and cultural interactions between languages when one speech community adopts names for an innovation or concept from another language. For example, English has borrowed thousands of words from other languages over centuries, and the desire for new lexicon adaptation can be caused by various factors, including semantic gaps, prestige, scientific and technological advancement, and individuals’ needs

[6]

. The borrowed words from English that are used in other language, often in the context of globalization, and they often undergo adaption to fit the Phonological, morphological, and the semantic patterns of the borrowing language.

[7]

Kibena, as a language with a low status, has been receiving new lexicon from both the Kiswahili and English languages through lexical borrowing to fill in the gap of the lexical words that do not exist in Kibena. Being in the position of a receiving language and not a donor language, Kibena should not be considered as less developed languages because, all the powerful languages in the world, such as English, French, German, and Kiswahili, borrow words from other languages for different purposes. For example, many loan words from Arabic and English have been adopted in Kiswahili due to language contact. In addition

[8]

lists some English loan words, which have entered Kiswahili and are being used as part of Kiswahili vocabularies. These words are kochi ‘coach’, kipa ‘goalkeeper’, penati 'penalty', and fowadi ‘forward’. Thus

[3]

asserts that Kiswahili has adopted many vocabularies from her former colonial masters, namely Portuguese, Arabic, British, and German, which have enabled the expansion of Kiswahili vocabularies.

Apart from that

[9, 10]

hold that colonialists in Tanganyika used Kiswahili as an official language for political communication, administration, and as a medium of instruction. The status of Kiswahili made EthiniCommunity Languages (ECLs) speakers, especially Kibena, come into contact with Kiswahili. After Tanganyika’s independence in 1961, Kibena contact with Kiswahili was intense

[11]

. Tanganyika language policy authorizes Kiswahili to be used as a national language. The Ministry of Education (1984), as cited

[12]

, writes that Kiswahili was to be used as a medium of instruction in primary schools. All speakers of ECLs, in one way or another, were forced to learn Kiswahili, which was used in almost all aspects of language use. The situation also influenced Bena speakers to come closer to Kiswahili. This caused Bena people to borrow and localize some Kiswahili expressions during contact for different functions, such as filling up lexical gaps.

Kiswahili lexical borrowing in Kibena was influenced by social stratification contact between the two languages

[13]

Consequently,

[14, 15]

state that linguistic influences have caused Kiswahili to spread deeply in the speech of ethnic languages and families, and most of these languages are spoken as third languages.

On the other hand

[16]

, cited by

[17]

, states that English has been in contact with Tanzanian ECLs since the 1800s. The social interaction of English speakers and Bena caused the languages to come into contact, and through interaction, the convergence of two languages emerged with the influence of word borrowing and lexical expression localization. Most English lexical expressions have entered Kibena through both indirect and direct lexical expression methods.

2. Kachru’s Theory of Language Deficit

The Deficit Theory believes that word borrowing is caused by linguistic gaps in language

[18]

. The theory also considers that the primary motivation for borrowing is deficit particularly in the in the lexical sources of the language. This signifies that many words are borrowed in a language from another language because there are no equivalents in the target borrowing language. For example, the language speaker may need to borrow words referring to names, objects, or places that are peculiar to certain places or do not exist.

According to

[18]

borrowed the word Kookaburra a kind of animal, from the Australian language since the English language did not have that noun and arguably that animal did not exist in their locality. On the other hand, some languages have borrowed English words relating to entertainment and sports like football, tennis to fill in the lexical gaps in their languages

[19]

. The study of language contact in Japanese found that Japanese has a number of lexical loanwords from English, such as basketball, table, tennis, and golf

[20]

. All the loanwords in English and Japanese have gained the status of being part of the borrowing language vocabulary. This process has caused the recipient language to increase its number of lexicons through lexical borrowing. Inlight of this Bojaxh

[21]

adds they borrowed words into receiving language can be assimilated phonologically, orthographically. morphologically or semantically.

3. Statement of the Problem

Languages borrow words from each other when they come into contact. For example, English, as a case in point, despite being an international language, has borrowed several words from other languages

[22]

. The same situation of borrowing between languages in Tanzania has been reported by several scholars, both positively and negatively. Thus

[23]

reported that Kiswahili is a threat to the development of Ruhaya.

Similarly

[17]

reported that Kiswahili changes ethnic languages spoken around the Lake Zone and Mount Kilimanjaro. The study of

[8]

found out that English and Kiswahili threaten the development of ethnic languages in Tanzania. Similarly,

[12]

studied swahilization in Kibena. On the other hand,

[24]

reported that borrowing from Kiswahili words had supported the development of tenses, pronouns, and tense in Chimalaba. The same idea was portrayed by

[25]

found that lexical borrowing from Kiswahili to Ngoni had enabled semantic extension. Kiswahili hadcontributed to the nativization of new nouns in Chimalila

[26]

. The study

[27]

realized that loan words from English affected the Kimaswitule dialect of Kibena.

Despite these studies on language borrowing in Tanzania, we are still left with the question, “How has borrowing from Kiswahili and English benefited the development of Kibena?” From this, it follows that the available studies have mainly focused on the negative side of the phenomenon or just mentioned its positive side by placing an emphasis on semantics, tenses, and partly word categories. Furthermore, it is an interesting area of study since most studies on language contact between languages with high economic, political, and cultural status, like English and Kiswahili, view these languages as threats to the development of minority languages. Contrary to the above-stated notions, this study considered English and Kiswahili to be great contributors to the development of minority languages, including Kibena, through the donation of new vocabularies.

4. Objective

The study aims to examine English and Kiswahili expressions that have been localized in Kibena and led to the development of new expressions.

5. Significance of the Study

The study is useful to academicians, grammarians, lexicographers, epistemologists, and students who will be dealing with the history of a language and its development. Furthermore, it provides an opportunity for academicians to understand and appreciate the influence and contribution of English and Kiswahili on the development of Tanzanian ethnic community languages, especially Kibena.

Furthermore, the study might create more awareness among Bena people about the importance of English and Kiswahili’s influence on the development of Kibena since some words and expressions from these languages may be used to cover the lexical gaps and some concepts in their language need to be used in different domains. For example, new words and loan words developed through the contribution of English and Kiswahili in Kibena will be helpful to the community to have a wide scope of lexicon use for different purposes, such as in religion, agriculture, politics, education, and other aspect.

6. Methodology

The study was conducted in Wanging’ombe District, Njombe Region, which is the mainstay of the Bena people. The area was purposefully selected because it is the area with the most language confluence or language contact. The majority of the Bena people live on the highland plateau in Wanging’ombe and Njombe Districts of the Njombe Region,

[28, 29]

The study employed the descriptive research design in order to provide a deep and clear explanation of how Kibena has borrowed, adapted, and managed to create new expressions (vocabularies) as a result of its contact with English and Kiswahili. Both qualitative and quantitative approaches were employed to analyze the collected data. The study comprised of 50 respondents who were Bena native speakers. The purposive and snowball techniques helped to select 50 respondents who were either bilingual in English or Kiswahili and Kibena native speakers from Wanging’ombe District. The snowball sampling technique was employed to obtain 3 representatives from 16 wards and 2 representatives from one ward. In addition, the snowball assisted in getting the proper respondents because the respondents themselves helped to identify the native speakers who were willful and capable, and they were bilingual in English and Kiswahili.

The questionnaire was designed in the form of wordlists and was divided into four columns, whereby column one comprised English words; column two Kiswahili words corresponding to the English wordlists; column three, words in Kibena; column four, the original language the word adopted. Each respondent was requested to fill in columns three and four using the English and Kiswahili wordlists in columns one and two of the questionnaire. The structured interview guide, consisting of short expressions, was used to collect data concerning how English and Kiswahili expressions have been localized in Kibena. English and Kiswahili expressions were extracted from the fields of politics, economics, technology, and agriculture. The respondents were required to explain during the interview session how those English and Kiswahili expressions were adopted, written, and used in Kibena.

7. Data Analysis Procedures

The qualitative and quantitative data were analyzed through content analysis techniques. The analysis of qualitative data was conducted in several stages, as follows: The data analysis steps involved transcription, organization and coding into themes, verification, interpretation, and reporting of findings. Data collected through interviews were transcribed into text format, and data with similar themes were gathered together. The step of organization was done to gather data with similar themes or ideas. The step of coding into themes was most important in order to identify the responses raised by respondents. The verification step involved checking the credibility and validity of the information gathered. The last step was reporting the findings, whereby the paper has to share what has been obtained and learned from the study on the influences of English and Kiswahili on the lexical development of Bena.

Quantitative data were analyzed using simple calculations, showing percentages of respondents and being presented in tables. The step of coding into themes was so important in order to identify and interpret respondents’ responses to a particular theme according to the frequency of responses raised by respondents. After the paper was verified, the validity of the information gathered through considering the morphological and phonological clues from the data provided by the respondents.

In addition, the data from the questionnaire and interview were analyzed using the conceptual content method, which requires the researcher’s identification of the existing loanwords in a recipient language based on morphological clues, which enables the identification of loanwords such as proper and common nouns in Kibena texts.

8. Presentation of Findings

8.1. Localized English and Kiswahili Expressions in Kibena

The study found that English and Kiswahili expressions have been localized as part of Kibena expressions. Localized expressions were those Kibena new vocabularies developed in that language through the translation process, presenting the equivalent application of the terminologies used in English and Kiswahili. Most of these vocabularies were developed in English and Kiswahili due to technological advancement and other current social, cultural, and political aspects. The findings further show evidence of how English and Kiswahili expressions localized in Kibena have influenced the development of Kibena vocabulary. Table 1 shows the findings of the localized expressions in Kibena as the result of being in contact with English and Kiswahili.

Table 1. English and Kiswahili expressions localized in Kibena.

S/N	English expression	Kiswahili expression	Expression written/used in Kibena	Respenses
				N₁=50	N²=25	T=75	%=100
				Q	INT		%
1	Agriculture First	Kilimo kwanza	Hulima hulongolele/ Amalimo hwanza	48	22	70	93
2	Special sits	Viti maalum	Vigoda fitambule	47	23	70	93
3	Kitchen party	Kicheni pati	Mawuungo ga mugati	46	23	69	92
4	Send off	Kuuaga Binti anayeolewa	Nyoogendza	46	19	65	86
5	Street children	Watoto wa mitaani	Avana va mungelele	43	21	64	85
6	Hand phone	Simu ya kiganjami	Hilingalonga sha mmawoho	41	23	64	85
7	Free market	Soko huria	Ingudzi ja kitendilema	45	19	64	85
8	Cold war	Vita baridi	Mahomano/magoha matotomu	42	22	64	85
9	Shadow Minister	Waziri Kivuli	Wasili Mwigigi	40	23	63	83
10	Freedom and work	Uhuru na kazi	Ukitendileme lwa malimo	40	20	60	80
11	Organisation of African Countries	Umoja wa Nchi Huru za Afrika	Ulumwi lwa Inyi telamu dza vatitu	39	21	60	80
12	African Union	Umoja wa Afrika	Uvunyalumwinga lwa vatitu	40	20	60	80
13	Socialism	Ujamaa na kujitegemea	Uwumwinga nu wikangadza mavoko	39	18	57	76
	Old decoder	Kinga’amuzi cha zamani	Kifedzimola kilovela	39	16	55	73

N= number of respondents, Q=questionnaire, INT=interview, T=total

Source: Field Data

The findings in the table show that the contact between English and Kiswahili with Kibena influenced the localization of new vocabularies from English and Kiswahili into Kibena. The words have been adapted through the influence of word translation strategies. The localization process had enhanced familiarization and easier understanding of these new vocabularies from English and Kiswahili to Kibena users.

The study found the expression vita baridi ‘cold war’ for cold war was localized in Kibena as mahomano/magoha matotomu. During the interview session, one of the Kibena language developers reported that the word cold war as a political term was among the new words that have been developed in Kibena as a result of using Kiswahili as the national language. Furthermore, the word kilolelo, meaning 'television', has been localized in Kibena written texts so that when the Kibena are reading their language, they became familiar with these new words being developed in their language.

Table 2. English and Kiswahili expressions localized in Kibena.

Na	English models	Kiswahili	Expression written/ used in Kibena	Original language the words adopted
1	World cup	Kombe la dunia.	Likombe lya inyi.	Kiswahili
2	Technical bench	Dawati la ufundi.	Lidawati lya avagalagala.	Kiswahili and Kibena
3	Night club.	Kilabu ya usiku.	Hilabu sha pakilo.	Kiingereza and Kiswahili
4	Industrial revolution.	Mapinduzi ya viwanda.	Higalugalu sha fiwanda.	Kiswahili
5	Bank statement.	Benki statement.	Ibengi setatimendi.	Kiingereza
6	Trade mark.	Alama ya biashara	Kimanyilo kya biasara.	Kiswahili
7	Street children.	Watoto wa mitaani.	Avana va mungelele.	Kiswahili
8	Birthday party.	Sherehe ya siku Sherehe ya kuzaliwa.	Selehe ja huholya.	Kiswahili
9	Local Government.	Serikali za mitaa.	iSelikali dza ngelele.	Kiswahili
10	Photocopy mashine.	Potokopia.	Masine ja kubinilidza.	Kiingereza

The study found localized expressions in Kibena have the features of loanword combination, both features of either English or Kiswahili, and Kibena. Table 2 presents data from the findings showing how different widely used English and Kiswahili words have been localized to Kibena so as to facilitate communication.

8.2. Localization of the Neologism ‘Mobile Phone’

Most respondents, 64 (85%), revealed that the new word mobile phone or handset was localized as hilingalonga sha mmawoho. The term is used to refer to a simple and portable telephone that a person can carry and use at any place. The term originates from Western countries that have more advanced science and technology than African countries, including Tanzania. In Tanzania, the term started to be used around 2000s where by the advanced technology of using of mobile phones was introduced, and it was by that timethat the word was directly translated into Kiswahili as isimu ja kiganjani or simu ya mkononi.

Bena people were interviewed on what they call the word simu ya mkononi as a new mode of communication that had entered their society as a result of being in contact with these two languages. Respondents said that they called it isimu ja mumawoho as the word provided features directly featuring word-to-word loan translation from Kiswahili. The word was naturalized to Kibena pronunciation to make it easier for Kibena speakers to articulate the word.

This phenomenon of word naturalization and localization in another language is found to be common in many languages spoken in the world. As rightly approved by Kamau (2008), Kiswahili has naturalized several English words to Kiswahili as in the following words: account to ‘akaunt’, format to ‘fomati, computer to‘komputa, and disk to ‘diski’. The same practices are realized in Zulu, where the English word internet is translated as ‘inttanethi’ in Isizulu.

During the interview, the researcher asked the respondents if they were still using the loanword isimu ja mumawoho, 'mobile'phone’ since the introduction of the mobile phone usage in their language. The respondents said that they had coined two new words: hilongalonga and hipulihilo sha mmawoho. According to their explanations, hilongalonga (to speak) was coined from the function performed by the mobile phone, such as communicating with different people, while sha mmawoho (at, on, or in the hand) is something that can be carried with hands.

The newly coined neologism hipulihilo was connoted by the ear’s function, which is used for listening to any coming information. The respondents reported that since the instrument was used to listen and send information while holding on to their hand, the two words hand and ear were coined together to form a new word with a different meaning, ‘hipulihilo sha mmawoho’. The process of language development and creating new words from existing words is also vivid in Kiswahili. For example, Kiswahili developers have developed the word ‘tanakilishi’ instead of komputa (TUKI, 2014).

8.3. Localization of the Neologism ‘Kitchen Party’

The study further investigated how the word ‘kitchen party’ has been localized in Kibena as mawungo ga mugat’i. The respondents, 69 (92%), reported that the word kitchen party is localized as mawungo ga mugati, which means'secret teachings to a girl who expects to get married’. On the other hand, 6 (8%) of the respondents said that it was localized as kicheni paati since it is a new cultural practice in Kibena that was adapted from Swahili people and has become popular in their society since around the 2000s. During the interview session, one of the respondents reported that, in the beginning, the word was directly translated as kicheni paati. It was found that loan word was translated and localized in Kibena then naturalized to the foreign words that conform more closely to Kibena phonological and orthography aspects and are easier to pronounce and write.

Despite the use of the loan word ‘kicheni paati', which is a direct loan translation from English, the Kibena language developers reported that in 2014 they had managed to coin a new vocabulary called mawungo ga mugati, which is derivative from the words luwungo' marriage teachings’ and mugati ‘inside’. The new coined word and it’s new meaning referring to special and secret teaching given to the girl who expects to get married. It is specifically, done by a group of women.

The same observation was made to the expression's send-off; coined as nyoongedza (thanks). Originally, nyoongedza was a ceremony prepared by the family of the bride after the wedding. It was not done before the wedding, as it is done now. It was meant to thank God and the community that marriage has taken place. Most respondents 65 (86%) reported that the word was found to be familiar and used in the areas of Imalinyi, Kinenulo, Ugwachanya, and Kidugala.

8.4. Localization of the Kiswahili Neologism ‘Viti Maalum’

Special seats in Kiswahili viti maalum on in Kibena figoda fitambule’ means the special positions offered to women to be Members of Parliament, in order to increase the number of women seats in the Parliament of Tanzania. Historically, special seats for women in Tanzania's political aspects resulted from Tanzania’s meeting with the Southern African Development Community (SADC) and the 1995 Belgium Platform Action target of 30% representation

[30]

. It was through this situation that the word was coined from English to Kiswahili as ‘viti maalum’. The observation was made based on the finding that 70 (93%) respondents said that when Kiswahili speakers come into contact with Kibena speakers, the word is coined in Kibena as ‘figoda fitambule’.

The study realized that the word was localized through a word-to-word translation technique based on the function of the chair and its respect. In Kibena, figoda means chairs in general, but fitambule refers to a respected one, and it is usually known that they are special for some people, such as leaders of the family or father of the house. The new expression was developed referring to its semantic role given to women as more special and unique that needs to be given special attention as men. The word is newly coined, but most of the Kibena speakers use the term ‘figoda maalum’ which is the loan translation from Kiswahili into Kibena. One of the Kibena language developers said that it was one step ahead to have a Kibena word referring to Members of Parliament (Mbunge) and special seats (viti maalum) instead of using the loan words from these two dominant languages in Tanzania.

The findings further revealed that the Bena people did not have the position of Member of Parliament, as coined in Kiswahili as mbunge and in Kibena coined as mnyamasimula. A member of parliament comes from the Kibena word mmasimula, meaning some speakers or representatives on the behavior of others. One of the language developers reported that the word was coined based on the role of the parliament. He adds that in most of the oral communication setting, Kibena people used the loan word Umbunge, ‘a member of parliament’ since the word mnyamasimula is a new coined word used in the Kibena language developer glossary but not well familiarized to Kibena speakers. Another concept related to this was Wasili Mwigigi, Waziri kivuli, ‘Shadow Minister’ that was directly translated in Kiswahili as similar as in Kibena Wasili Mwigigi, as reported by 63 (83% of the respondents).

8.5. Localization of the Kiswahili Neologism ‘Kilimo Kwanza’

‘Kilimo Kwanza’ is a political Kiswahili motto introduced in 2000 by then Prime Minister Mizengo Pinda, meaning ‘Agriculture First’ for the development of Tanzania. Historically, Kiswahili has had the old motto, Uhuru na kazi, ‘freedom and work’. The vocabulary hulima hulongolele/hutalile ‘Kilimo kwanza’ was coined and localized in Kibena as hulima ‘hulongolele/hutalile.’ This was realized from the findings, whereby 70 (93%) of the respondents said they used the word hulima hulongolele/hutalile, ‘Kilimo kwanza'.

The respondents reported that the word was a newly formed word that had been developed in their language following the strong political saying Kilimo Kwanza, which demanded Tanzanians invest more in agriculture. In order to have the same equivalent word with the Kiswahili expression, two Kibena words were coined together. Hulima means, work, and hulongolele/hutalile refers to first, coining a new word with a new meaning. Hulima hulongolele, which denoted the concept of agriculture first, ‘Kilimo kwanza’. The same observation was made when the word ‘Hapa Kazi Tu’ was coined and localized in daily communication as Apa Malimo Swee. However, some of the youth in their questionnaire filled in the word Hapa Kazi Tu as Apa Kasi Swee. The researcher asked the language developers to clarify the difference between the two coined words and their meanings. One of those respondents said that the expression had the same meaning relating to Hapa Kazi Tu, but the difference is that Apa Kasi Swee is localized through loan translation, thus using the word kasi instead of malimo.

8.6. Localization of the Neologism “Watoto Wa Mitaani”

The finding revealed that the phrase avana va mungelele in Kiswahili watoto wa mitaani is an expression that denotes homeless children. This expression has a long history in Russia, where its history shows that the issues of street children have been documented as far back as 1848, when Alan Ball wrote on the history of abandoned children in Soviet Russia. The expression seemingly popular was coined and used in many spoken languages in the world. For example, in German is called Straßenkinder, Kishona vana vomugwagw, Latin fili via, Zulu inzingane zasemgwaqweni in French ‘enfant des rue, and Kiswahili watoto wa mitaani Kibena avana va mungelele and English'street children’.

The historical information about Kibena does not document the street children in Kibena Land because they never existed, as all children were accommodated in the social system, catering to the needs of everyone. Thus, the findings revealed that the phenomena were new in the area, hence, the expression had been localized and coined as a new neologism, avana va mungelele, as reported by 64 (85%) of the respondents. The words were localized from two Kibena words: avana means children, and mungelele refers to a street or no proper place of living, said one of the respondents during the interview.

However, the findings show that some of the respondents, equal to 11 (15%) used the term avana va mumitavo, which is a direct loan translation but does not feature the characteristics of the newly created word (neologism). Since the majority of respondents 43 (67%) reported that the expression avana va mungelele, ‘treet chridren', they assumed that the contact between English and Kiswahili with Kibena had positive effects on Kibena since they were managing to create new words in accordance with the new words entering their language and avoid total use of loan words in Kibena.

9. Discussion of Findings

9.1. Consequences of English and Kiswahili Expression Localization in Kibena

From the findings presented in subsection 4.6, the researcher has found out that the language contact between Englih and Kiswahili with Kibena has influenced the development of new expressions through expression localization into Kibena. The development has enabled an increase in new expression in Kibena. The following part presents the form of new expressions formed in Kibena as a result of being in contact with English and Kiswahili.

9.2. Loan Blend Formation

A loan blend is an expression in a language that has a combination of two different features of two languages. The new blended word in another language features the morpheme of the source language and the recipient language. The researcher found that the loan blend and borrowing morpheme and sound from English and Kiswahili were localized in Kibena. The expressions in Kibena were localized with the morpheme and sound characteristics of English or Kiswahili. The Kibena speaker tries to find words that are the same in Kibena and relates the meaning carried out from English and Kiswahili. Furthermore, some expressions have been localized in Kibena by word to word translation. The words such as Likombe lya inyi, ‘world cup', are typical loan translation products from Kiswahili. The respondents said that in their tradition, Bena people did not have champion leagues, so when speakers came into contact with English and Kiswahili, they started hearing the term world cup. The word was directly translated from English to Kiswahili as Kombe la Dunia. In the same manner, the expression was adopted and localized as Likombe lya inyi, ‘world cup', by the Kibena speakers based on the associative meaning, which represents the concept of a special cup that is bigger than other cups in the world. The li represent the Kibena prefix, the kombe loan word from Kiswahili, and the lya nyi bena word. These findings concur with

[31]

statement that Swahili has localized several English words in Kiswahili, such as akaunti ‘account’ and fomati ‘format’. Furthermore, the study found that the expression Hapa kazi tu from Kiswahili was localized in Kibena as Amalimo Hwanza. The word, after being localized in Kibena, formed a blend word possessing both the characteristics of Kibena amalimo and Kiswahili Hwanza.

The same analysis was made for the words iSelehe ja huholwa ‘birthday’ and iSelikali dza ngelel’e’ serikali za mitaa ‘local government’ were formed in Kibena through word-for-word translation. The morphological clues have enabled the researcher to realize that the word iSelehe ‘party’ resembles the Kiswahili words'sherehe'’ and'serikali’ but with a slight difference in phonological pronunciation in Kibena. Inaddition

[32]

is of the same view that foreign words entering the language tend to be significally modified so that they can fit the general pattern of the recipient language. The same thing happened in Kiswahili, where speakers pronounced the starting /ʧ/ sound, and Kibena started with the /s/ sound, simplified voiced liquid phonetic trill sound /r/ into voiceless liquid lateral sound /l/. This process happens during the borrowing process, which includes the phonological simplification of the loanwords into the borrowing language. The morphological and phonological simplification enabled easier localization of English and Kiswahili in Kibena.

9.3. Word-to-Word Translation as Techniques of English and Kiswahili Expression Localization in Kibena

The study observed that the Bena people have managed to localize and adapt new expressions used in English or Kibena through the use of word-to-word translation techniques in order to coin new neologisms in Kibena. The speaker perceived the word first in their mother tongue, and then each word was associated with a meaning that relates to each word in the lexical expression used in English or Kiswahili. For example, the Kiswahili expression vita baridi, ‘cold war’ was localized in Kibena as magoha matotomu or mahomano matotomu. Magoha means'spears’ and Mahomano means'stab each other’ and Matotomu means ‘too cold, things and unpleseant’. The new localized expression was easier understood in Kibena context but on the on the other hand, it influenced the development of a new expression in Kibena, meaning cold war. This is supported by

[33]

that Kiswahili speakers in Kenya appreciate the localization of the M-Pesa menu into Kiswahili since it familiarizes Kiswahili speakers with Kiswahili vocabularies rather than using English loan words.

In addition, the English and Kiswahili contact with Kibena has influenced Kibena to increase new lexical expressions in order to fill the gap that occurred during interration. For example, the introduction of a new trading system instead of the batter trade caused Bena to be exposed to new expressions such as trademarks, which refer to trade ownership authority. The expression was localized as kimanyilo kya biasara. Kimanyilo in Kibena means identity, and biashara was directly localized in Kibena as ‘biasala’. Other new neologisms that have been coined and localized into Kibena through word-to-word translation are: hipulihilo sha mmawoho, simu ya kiganjani,'mobile phone’, imola imyoimyo habari motomoto, ‘breaking news’, husolanila isolo, kupiga kura, ‘to vote', and matokeo makubwa sasa. Mavonehelo means to be seen after doing something good or bad and makumi means too big. The localization of new expressions in the Kibena language has enabled Bena people to first understand and become familiar with the new expressions in their language, and second, the localization has caused the development of new lexical words in Kibena. The information that has been localized in the user’s language is more accessible and easily processed than in a foreign language

[34].

10. Conclusion

Generously, the researcher has observed that the localization of new expressions from English and Kiswahili has enabled Kibena to increase her vocabulary. The Kibena used the techniques in consideration of thefunction of the new expressions as they relate to their environment's meaning. This has been discussed in detail, for example, the expressions for the special chair and mobile phone. Another technique was the direct borrowing of expressions that do not exist in Kibena. So English and Kiswahili contact had enriched Kibena with new vocabularies, which had resulted in the development of Kibena.

Author Contributions

Neema Amos Chaula: Conceptualization, literature review, data collection, methodology, analysis

Pendo Mwashota: Methodology, paper editing

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

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Chaula, N. A., Mwashota, P. (2024). English and Kiswahili Lexical Localization in Kibena. International Journal of Language and Linguistics, 12(4), 152-160. https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ijll.20241204.11

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Chaula, N. A.; Mwashota, P. English and Kiswahili Lexical Localization in Kibena. Int. J. Lang. Linguist. 2024, 12(4), 152-160. doi: 10.11648/j.ijll.20241204.11

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Chaula NA, Mwashota P. English and Kiswahili Lexical Localization in Kibena. Int J Lang Linguist. 2024;12(4):152-160. doi: 10.11648/j.ijll.20241204.11

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@article{10.11648/j.ijll.20241204.11,
  author = {Neema Amos Chaula and Pendo Mwashota},
  title = {English and Kiswahili Lexical Localization in Kibena
},
  journal = {International Journal of Language and Linguistics},
  volume = {12},
  number = {4},
  pages = {152-160},
  doi = {10.11648/j.ijll.20241204.11},
  url = {https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ijll.20241204.11},
  eprint = {https://article.sciencepublishinggroup.com/pdf/10.11648.j.ijll.20241204.11},
  abstract = {This paper has examined how English and Kiswahili borrowed expressions have been localized in Kibena. The study was guided by Kachru theory of language dominance and deficit, which deals with language contact and lexical borrowing between donor and recipient languages. In this study English and Kiswahili were the donor language and Kibena was the recipient language whereby the Kibena speakers consciously or unconsciously localized English and Kibena words in Kibena during communication process. The study employed a mixed approach and a descriptive research design in data collection, presentation, and discussion. Data were collected from fourteen written texts and fifty respondents through a questionnaire, interview, and documentary review. The data were analyzed using conceptual and rational content analysis methods. The findings underscore the significance of language contact in developing Kibena lexical knowledge through new lexical creation, borrowing, or localization in order to fill the lexical gap and for prestige attainment. The study realized that English and Kiswahili lexical which were localization in Kibena influenced the development of new words in Kibena through loan blend words formation, neologism creation and word to word translation techniques. The language contact was found to be among of the language’s vocabularies enrichment through words borrowing, naturalization, and adaptation. It is recommended that other research be done on the role of the phonological adaptation process of English and Kiswahili words into Kibena during lexical localization.
},
 year = {2024}
}

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TY  - JOUR
T1  - English and Kiswahili Lexical Localization in Kibena

AU  - Neema Amos Chaula
AU  - Pendo Mwashota
Y1  - 2024/07/29
PY  - 2024
N1  - https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ijll.20241204.11
DO  - 10.11648/j.ijll.20241204.11
T2  - International Journal of Language and Linguistics
JF  - International Journal of Language and Linguistics
JO  - International Journal of Language and Linguistics
SP  - 152
EP  - 160
PB  - Science Publishing Group
SN  - 2330-0221
UR  - https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ijll.20241204.11
AB  - This paper has examined how English and Kiswahili borrowed expressions have been localized in Kibena. The study was guided by Kachru theory of language dominance and deficit, which deals with language contact and lexical borrowing between donor and recipient languages. In this study English and Kiswahili were the donor language and Kibena was the recipient language whereby the Kibena speakers consciously or unconsciously localized English and Kibena words in Kibena during communication process. The study employed a mixed approach and a descriptive research design in data collection, presentation, and discussion. Data were collected from fourteen written texts and fifty respondents through a questionnaire, interview, and documentary review. The data were analyzed using conceptual and rational content analysis methods. The findings underscore the significance of language contact in developing Kibena lexical knowledge through new lexical creation, borrowing, or localization in order to fill the lexical gap and for prestige attainment. The study realized that English and Kiswahili lexical which were localization in Kibena influenced the development of new words in Kibena through loan blend words formation, neologism creation and word to word translation techniques. The language contact was found to be among of the language’s vocabularies enrichment through words borrowing, naturalization, and adaptation. It is recommended that other research be done on the role of the phonological adaptation process of English and Kiswahili words into Kibena during lexical localization.

VL  - 12
IS  - 4
ER  -

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Author Information

Neema Amos Chaula

Department of Language Studies and Communication Skills, University of Iringa, Iringa, Tanzania

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Pendo Mwashota

Department of Language and Literature, Mkwawa University College, Iringa, Tanzania

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Chaula, N. A., Mwashota, P. (2024). English and Kiswahili Lexical Localization in Kibena. International Journal of Language and Linguistics, 12(4), 152-160. https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ijll.20241204.11

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Chaula, N. A.; Mwashota, P. English and Kiswahili Lexical Localization in Kibena. Int. J. Lang. Linguist. 2024, 12(4), 152-160. doi: 10.11648/j.ijll.20241204.11

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AMA Style

Chaula NA, Mwashota P. English and Kiswahili Lexical Localization in Kibena. Int J Lang Linguist. 2024;12(4):152-160. doi: 10.11648/j.ijll.20241204.11

Copy | Download

@article{10.11648/j.ijll.20241204.11,
  author = {Neema Amos Chaula and Pendo Mwashota},
  title = {English and Kiswahili Lexical Localization in Kibena
},
  journal = {International Journal of Language and Linguistics},
  volume = {12},
  number = {4},
  pages = {152-160},
  doi = {10.11648/j.ijll.20241204.11},
  url = {https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ijll.20241204.11},
  eprint = {https://article.sciencepublishinggroup.com/pdf/10.11648.j.ijll.20241204.11},
  abstract = {This paper has examined how English and Kiswahili borrowed expressions have been localized in Kibena. The study was guided by Kachru theory of language dominance and deficit, which deals with language contact and lexical borrowing between donor and recipient languages. In this study English and Kiswahili were the donor language and Kibena was the recipient language whereby the Kibena speakers consciously or unconsciously localized English and Kibena words in Kibena during communication process. The study employed a mixed approach and a descriptive research design in data collection, presentation, and discussion. Data were collected from fourteen written texts and fifty respondents through a questionnaire, interview, and documentary review. The data were analyzed using conceptual and rational content analysis methods. The findings underscore the significance of language contact in developing Kibena lexical knowledge through new lexical creation, borrowing, or localization in order to fill the lexical gap and for prestige attainment. The study realized that English and Kiswahili lexical which were localization in Kibena influenced the development of new words in Kibena through loan blend words formation, neologism creation and word to word translation techniques. The language contact was found to be among of the language’s vocabularies enrichment through words borrowing, naturalization, and adaptation. It is recommended that other research be done on the role of the phonological adaptation process of English and Kiswahili words into Kibena during lexical localization.
},
 year = {2024}
}

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TY  - JOUR
T1  - English and Kiswahili Lexical Localization in Kibena

AU  - Neema Amos Chaula
AU  - Pendo Mwashota
Y1  - 2024/07/29
PY  - 2024
N1  - https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ijll.20241204.11
DO  - 10.11648/j.ijll.20241204.11
T2  - International Journal of Language and Linguistics
JF  - International Journal of Language and Linguistics
JO  - International Journal of Language and Linguistics
SP  - 152
EP  - 160
PB  - Science Publishing Group
SN  - 2330-0221
UR  - https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ijll.20241204.11
AB  - This paper has examined how English and Kiswahili borrowed expressions have been localized in Kibena. The study was guided by Kachru theory of language dominance and deficit, which deals with language contact and lexical borrowing between donor and recipient languages. In this study English and Kiswahili were the donor language and Kibena was the recipient language whereby the Kibena speakers consciously or unconsciously localized English and Kibena words in Kibena during communication process. The study employed a mixed approach and a descriptive research design in data collection, presentation, and discussion. Data were collected from fourteen written texts and fifty respondents through a questionnaire, interview, and documentary review. The data were analyzed using conceptual and rational content analysis methods. The findings underscore the significance of language contact in developing Kibena lexical knowledge through new lexical creation, borrowing, or localization in order to fill the lexical gap and for prestige attainment. The study realized that English and Kiswahili lexical which were localization in Kibena influenced the development of new words in Kibena through loan blend words formation, neologism creation and word to word translation techniques. The language contact was found to be among of the language’s vocabularies enrichment through words borrowing, naturalization, and adaptation. It is recommended that other research be done on the role of the phonological adaptation process of English and Kiswahili words into Kibena during lexical localization.

VL  - 12
IS  - 4
ER  -

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