Abstract
Timber-Concrete Composite (TCC) structures represent a pivotal advancement in hybrid construction, combining the tensile strength and sustainability of timber with the compressive durability of concrete. This synergy has made TCC systems increasingly relevant in modern architectural and engineering applications, especially as the industry seeks efficient, eco-friendly solutions. This review traces the historical development of TCC technology and highlights its practical applications across residential, commercial, and infrastructural projects. Special focus is placed on the technical elements that define TCC performance, including material compatibility, shear connection mechanisms, and structural behavior under static, dynamic, and environmental loading. Recent innovations in modeling and design—ranging from finite element analysis to parametric and data-driven tools—are also examined, with attention to how these approaches are reshaping structural assessment and optimization. In particular, the integration of machine learning algorithms and advanced simulation workflows offers new possibilities for predictive performance modeling and adaptive design strategies. The review further explores fire resistance, acoustic performance, and long-term durability, with insights into how these factors influence code development and real-world implementation. Sustainability is a central theme, as TCC systems offer reduced carbon footprints, enhanced material efficiency, and alignment with life-cycle and circular economy principles. The role of TCC in modular construction and prefabrication is also discussed, alongside challenges in disassembly and reuse. Looking ahead, the review surveys emerging research directions, including the use of bio-based and recycled materials, robotic construction techniques, and digital twin technologies for real-time structural monitoring. By providing an integrated overview of material science, engineering practice, and technological innovation, this review serves as a comprehensive resource for academics, practitioners, and policymakers aiming to leverage TCC systems in the pursuit of resilient and sustainable built environments.
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Published in
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Engineering and Applied Sciences (Volume 10, Issue 3)
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DOI
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10.11648/j.eas.20251003.14
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Page(s)
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62-74 |
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Creative Commons
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This is an Open Access article, distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, provided the original work is properly cited.
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Copyright
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Copyright © The Author(s), 2025. Published by Science Publishing Group
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Keywords
Timber-Concrete Composite, Hybrid Structures, Advanced Modeling Techniques, Sustainable Construction, Digital Twin and Smart Monitoring
1. Introduction
The growing emphasis on environmental sustainability, material efficiency, and structural performance has steered the global construction industry toward hybrid solutions that leverage the complementary strengths of traditional and renewable materials. One such innovation is the Timber-Concrete Composite (TCC) system, which integrates the compressive capacity of concrete with the tensile and ecological advantages of timber. By effectively combining these two materials, TCC structures not only enhance mechanical efficiency but also align with the principles of sustainable development and circular economy
| [3] | Fragiacomo, M., Lukaszewska, E., & Johnsson, H. (2011). Laboratory tests and numerical analyses of prefabricated timber-concrete composite floors. Journal of Structural Engineering, 137(1), 101-110. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)ST.1943-541X.0000080ASCE |
| [1] | Ceccotti, A. (2002). Composite concrete-timber structures. Progress in Structural Engineering and Materials, 4(3), 264-275. https://doi.org/10.1002/pse.126Wiley Online Library |
[3, 1]
.
TCC systems are increasingly adopted in both new construction and retrofitting projects, particularly in residential buildings, office floors, schools, and pedestrian bridges. Their potential lies in the ability to minimize structural depth, reduce material usage, and improve acoustic and thermal insulation. Compared to traditional reinforced concrete slabs, TCC systems result in lower embodied energy and CO
2 emissions, making them a promising choice in green building practices
.
Recent advancements in connection technologies, prefabrication methods, and digital design tools have significantly improved the structural behavior and constructability of TCC systems. Shear connectors—such as notched, glued, screw, or dowel-type systems—play a crucial role in ensuring effective composite action. These innovations have expanded the application of TCC beyond low-rise structures to modular and multi-story buildings
| [5] | Lukaszewska, E., Fragiacomo, M., & Johnsson, H. (2010). Laboratory tests and numerical analyses of prefabricated timber-concrete composite floors. Journal of Structural Engineering, 136(1), 101-110. |
| [2] | Dias, A. M. P. G., Jorge, L. F. C., & Lopes, M. (2018). Timber-concrete composite bridges: A state-of-the-art review. Engineering Structures, 156, 321-337. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.engstruct.2017.11.011 |
[5, 2]
.
Parallel to material and connection advancements, the field has witnessed substantial progress in modeling and simulation techniques. From simplified analytical methods to high-fidelity finite element models and more recently, machine learning-assisted prediction tools, researchers are increasingly equipped to analyze complex interactions within TCC components under various load conditions. However, challenges remain in accurately capturing long-term behavior, connection slip, fire resistance, and performance under extreme events such as earthquakes or dynamic loads
| [4] | Hossain, K. M. A., & Ahmed, S. (2016). Finite element modeling of timber-concrete composite beams. Computers and Concrete, 18(5), 883-899. https://doi.org/10.12989/cac.2016.18.5.883 |
| [6] | Salehi, H., & Zhang, Y. (2021). Machine learning-assisted prediction of shear behavior in timber-concrete composite joints. Materials, 14(11), 2870. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14112870 |
[4, 6]
.
Despite the considerable growth in TCC-related research, comprehensive reviews that integrate emerging materials, advanced modeling approaches, and future research needs are limited. Existing literature tends to focus either on connection behavior, short-term structural performance, or life-cycle sustainability in isolation. To bridge this gap, this review synthesizes the most significant developments in the domain, critically examines the state-of-the-art modeling techniques, and outlines strategic directions for future investigations.
Objectives of the Review
This paper aims to:
I. Provide a historical overview and current status of timber-concrete composite systems in structural applications.
II. Analyze innovations in materials, connectors, and hybridization strategies.
III. Evaluate analytical, numerical, and AI-enhanced modeling tools used to simulate TCC behavior.
IV. Highlight performance trends related to sustainability, fire resistance, and lifecycle durability.
V. Identify gaps and propose research pathways aligned with the future of smart, sustainable construction.
Through this review, the article seeks to guide engineers, researchers, and policy makers toward optimized TCC design, efficient resource use, and the realization of next-generation hybrid construction systems.
2. Evolution and Applications of Timber-concrete Composite Structures
The evolution of Timber-Concrete Composite (TCC) systems reflects a progressive effort to combine the mechanical strengths of concrete and timber into a structurally efficient and environmentally responsible solution. Initially introduced to enhance the performance of timber floors in existing buildings, TCC systems have evolved into a modern hybrid solution, suitable for both new constructions and retrofitting applications.
2.1. Historical Development
The concept of composite timber-concrete systems dates back to the early 20th century but gained widespread attention in the 1980s and 1990s, primarily in Europe, where the preservation of historic timber buildings required reinforcement without full replacement. The early designs employed mechanical fasteners such as screws and nails to connect timber joists and concrete toppings
. These systems were relatively simple but limited in their ability to ensure full composite action due to connection slip.
Significant advancements came with the development of notched connections, screw-fastened systems, and glued interfaces, which improved the shear transfer and stiffness of the composite section
| [5] | Lukaszewska, E., Fragiacomo, M., & Johnsson, H. (2010). Laboratory tests and numerical analyses of prefabricated timber-concrete composite floors. Journal of Structural Engineering, 136(1), 101-110. |
| [3] | Fragiacomo, M., Lukaszewska, E., & Johnsson, H. (2011). Laboratory tests and numerical analyses of prefabricated timber-concrete composite floors. Journal of Structural Engineering, 137(1), 101-110. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)ST.1943-541X.0000080ASCE |
[5, 3]
. The late 2000s saw a shift toward prefabricated TCC elements, driven by construction speed, quality control, and reduced on-site labor.
The last decade has witnessed the integration of digital design tools, sustainability metrics, and performance-based design principles into TCC system development. This has enabled the use of TCC systems in multi-story buildings, modular construction, and long-span pedestrian bridges, particularly in regions aiming to reduce embodied carbon in buildings
| [2] | Dias, A. M. P. G., Jorge, L. F. C., & Lopes, M. (2018). Timber-concrete composite bridges: A state-of-the-art review. Engineering Structures, 156, 321-337. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.engstruct.2017.11.011 |
| [7] | Sartori, T., & Tomasi, R. (2020). Sustainability performance of timber-concrete composite buildings. Journal of Cleaner Production, 274, 123010. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2020.123010 |
[2, 7]
.
2.2. Applications in Modern Construction
Today, TCC systems are widely adopted in various structural typologies, offering a balanced solution between strength, flexibility, and environmental responsibility. The following are key areas of application:
a) Residential and Commercial Floors
One of the most common uses of TCC is in floor systems for residential and office buildings. The composite action allows for longer spans and reduced structural depths compared to pure timber floors, improving both functional space and acoustic insulation
.
b) Retrofitting and Rehabilitation
TCC systems are particularly effective in the renovation of historic timber structures, where additional load capacity is needed without compromising the architectural heritage. Composite retrofits can double or triple the bending stiffness of old timber floors with minimal increase in self-weight
.
c) Bridges and Walkways
In bridge engineering, TCC decks provide a durable and lightweight alternative to traditional concrete slabs, especially for pedestrian and light vehicle bridges. Their prefabrication potential allows for rapid installation in remote or environmentally sensitive areas
.
d) Modular and Prefabricated Systems
The industrialization of construction has favored modular TCC components, especially in multi-unit housing and educational buildings, where repeatability and installation speed are key. These systems also align with Design for Disassembly (DfD) principles, facilitating reuse and recyclability
.
2.3. Comparative Benefits and Limitations
Table 1 provides a comparative summary of the structural and sustainability attributes of TCC systems in relation to pure timber and reinforced concrete systems.
Table 1. Comparative Overview of Timber, Concrete, and Timber-Concrete Composite Systems.
Attribute | Timber | Concrete | TCC System |
Compressive Strength | Low | High | High (from concrete) |
Tensile Strength | High | Low | High (from timber) |
Embodied Energy | Low | High | Medium |
Fire Resistance | Moderate | High | High (enhanced with design) |
Structural Depth | High | Low | Low (optimized) |
Prefabrication Potential | High | Moderate | High |
Recyclability | High | Low | Medium-High |
2.4. Regional Adoption and Research Trends
In Europe, particularly in Germany, Switzerland, and Scandinavia, TCC systems are well integrated into national building codes and design practices. In contrast, adoption in North America and Asia remains at a developmental stage, with increasing research focusing on adapting the system to regional standards and material availability
| [9] | Jorissen, A., & Fragiacomo, M. (2011). General notes on ductility in timber structures. Engineering Structures, 33(11), 2987-2997. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.engstruct.2011.07.024 |
| [10] | Li, M., & Frangi, A. (2019). Seismic performance of timber-concrete hybrid systems. Engineering Structures, 197, 109423. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.engstruct.2019.109423 |
[9, 10]
.
The growth of performance-based and sustainability-driven design has led to rising interest in optimizing TCC systems for low-carbon buildings and life-cycle cost efficiency. This trend is mirrored in the expanding body of experimental and numerical research on long-term behavior, seismic performance, and digital modeling—topics explored in the following sections.
3. Materials, Connection Techniques, and Structural Behavior
The performance of timber-concrete composite (TCC) structures is governed by the characteristics of the constituent materials, the type and configuration of the shear connectors, and the interaction behavior at the interface. The synergy between timber and concrete enables the composite system to exhibit enhanced stiffness, strength, and serviceability, provided that the interlayer slip is adequately controlled. This section provides a detailed review of the materials used in TCC systems, the evolution of connection techniques, and their influence on structural performance.
3.1. Timber and Concrete Materials
3.1.1. Timber Components
Timber in TCC systems primarily resists tensile and flexural stresses. The commonly used timber species include glued-laminated timber (glulam), cross-laminated timber (CLT), and solid sawn timber. Glulam is favored for its high strength-to-weight ratio and dimensional stability, while CLT offers multi-directional stiffness and fire resistance
. The selection of timber type is influenced by availability, load-bearing requirements, and environmental conditions.
Engineered timber also improves predictability in performance and allows for prefabrication, which is crucial for modular applications. The growing use of locally sourced softwoods in regions such as Scandinavia and the Pacific Northwest further promotes the environmental credentials of TCC systems
.
3.1.2. Concrete Layer
Concrete in TCC structures primarily acts in compression and provides stiffness, acoustic insulation, and thermal mass. The concrete type varies from normal-strength concrete to lightweight aggregate concrete, depending on the design objectives. In renovation projects, self-compacting concrete (SCC) is often used to simplify casting and ensure full contact with timber surfaces
.
In recent studies, ultra-high-performance concrete (UHPC) and fiber-reinforced concrete have been explored to enhance long-term durability and reduce slab thickness while maintaining high strength and ductility
.
3.2. Shear Connection Systems
The mechanical interlock between timber and concrete is essential to achieve composite action. Various shear connector types have been developed, each with unique characteristics in terms of slip resistance, ductility, ease of installation, and suitability for prefabrication. These include:
a) Notched Connections
Notched connections involve cutting recesses in the timber beam and casting concrete into the notches. This type of connector provides excellent stiffness and load transfer capacity but requires precision in fabrication. The addition of reinforcing bars in the concrete notch further enhances shear performance
.
b) Mechanical Fasteners (Screws, Bolts, Dowels)
Fully threaded screws and inclined self-tapping screws are widely used due to their ease of installation and suitability for prefabrication. They provide a ductile response but are sensitive to loading direction and timber grain orientation
| [5] | Lukaszewska, E., Fragiacomo, M., & Johnsson, H. (2010). Laboratory tests and numerical analyses of prefabricated timber-concrete composite floors. Journal of Structural Engineering, 136(1), 101-110. |
[5]
. Dowels and bolts offer good strength but require pre-drilled holes and reinforcement against splitting.
c) Adhesive Bonding
Adhesive connectors offer a continuous interface without mechanical fasteners. They are highly effective for laboratory-scale specimens and prototype components. However, their sensitivity to moisture, temperature, and aging limits their widespread structural use
| [13] | Yeoh, D., Fragiacomo, M., & De Franceschi, M. (2011). Retrofit of timber floors using notched composite systems. Australian Journal of Structural Engineering, 12(1), 43-53. https://doi.org/10.1080/13287982.2011.11465084 |
| [30] | Elif Appavuravther, Bram Vandoren, Jose Henriques.(2024). Analytical and numerical investigation of adhesively bonded perfobond shear connectors for timber-concrete composite floors. Structures, Volume 70, December 2024, 107582. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.istruc.2024.107582 |
[13, 30]
.
d) Hybrid Connections
Recent innovations have combined notched geometries with screws or adhesives to enhance strength while addressing serviceability. Hybrid systems can be tailored for site-cast or factory-produced components
| [6] | Salehi, H., & Zhang, Y. (2021). Machine learning-assisted prediction of shear behavior in timber-concrete composite joints. Materials, 14(11), 2870. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14112870 |
[6]
.
3.3. Structural Behavior of TCC Systems
The structural performance of TCC members is determined by the degree of composite action, which ranges from partial to full depending on connector stiffness. The interaction is characterized by slip at the interface, leading to non-linear behavior that must be captured in analysis and design.
3.3.1. Load-carrying Capacity and Stiffness
The improved bending stiffness of TCC beams (often 1.5-3 times that of timber-only beams) leads to reduced deflections and enhanced vibration performance. The load-carrying capacity is primarily governed by the connector layout and concrete compressive strength
.
3.3.2. Long-term Performance
Creep in timber and shrinkage in concrete result in time-dependent deformations. Studies have shown that differential moisture effects and temperature fluctuations can cause internal stresses and reduce service life
. Therefore, long-term tests and rheological models are crucial in predicting deflection and cracking over the lifespan.
3.3.3. Dynamic and Seismic Response
TCC systems show improved dynamic behavior due to their increased mass and stiffness. In seismic zones, however, the behavior of connectors under cyclic loading and the ductility of the system become critical. Some studies have demonstrated that screw-type connections exhibit better energy dissipation and post-yield behavior under seismic actions
: (
Figure 1).
Figure 1. Common Shear Connection Types in TCC Systems.
Table 2. Summary of Shear Connector Types and Their Structural Properties.
Connector Type | Shear Stiffness | Load Capacity | Ductility | Prefabrication Friendly | Long-Term Behavior |
Notched + Rebar | High | High | Low-Moderate | Moderate | Good |
Self-Tapping Screws | Moderate | Moderate-High | High | High | Fair |
Dowels/Bolts | Low-Moderate | Moderate | Moderate | Low | Moderate |
Adhesive Bonding | High | High | Low | High | Poor (moisture sensitive) |
Hybrid (e.g., notch + screw) | High | High | Moderate-High | Moderate-High | Good |
Figure 2. Load-Slip Behavior of Different Connector Types.
3.4. Design Considerations and Challenges
While modern TCC systems offer numerous advantages, several challenges persist in both design and construction:
I. Connector design often requires empirical data and calibration, limiting standardization across regions.
II. Fire resistance must be evaluated with attention to charring of timber and degradation of adhesive or screw connections.
III. Moisture management and interface durability remain concerns, especially in unprotected environments.
IV. Code limitations in some countries still restrict the widespread application of TCC in tall buildings or critical infrastructure.
4. Advances in Modeling and Analysis Techniques
The structural behavior of Timber-Concrete Composite (TCC) systems is inherently complex due to the heterogeneity of materials, semi-rigid connections, and time-dependent effects such as creep and shrinkage. Traditional design approaches, while effective for simplified cases, are increasingly being complemented or replaced by advanced modeling techniques that provide deeper insights into performance across various loading and environmental conditions. This section presents the evolution and current state of analytical, numerical, and AI-assisted approaches for modeling TCC systems.
4.1. Analytical Methods
Analytical methods have historically formed the foundation for TCC design, especially in early codes and hand-calculation tools. Most analytical approaches assume linear-elastic behavior and focus on composite beam theory, where the connection is idealized as rigid, pinned, or elastic.
4.1.1. Gamma-method
The γ-method, introduced by Möhler (1956), is one of the most widely used analytical approaches for predicting the bending stiffness of TCC members with partial composite action. This method introduces a shear connection parameter (γ) to interpolate between the stiffness of fully composite and non-composite systems. The effective bending stiffness (EIₑₑf) of a composite beam made of concrete and timber can be calculated using the given formula:
EIₑₑf = γ·E₍c₎·I₍c₎+ E₍t₎·I₍t₎+ γ(1−γ)·E₍t₎·A₍t₎·a²
This expression accounts for:
1. The partial shear connection between the timber and concrete through the shear connection factor γ, which ranges between 0 (no connection) and 1 (full connection).
2. The bending stiffness of the individual concrete and timber sections, represented by the product of their elastic moduli (E₍c₎ and E₍t₎) and second moments of area (I₍c₎ and I₍t₎).
3. An interaction term that reflects the composite action due to the relative position (a) of the timber and concrete centroids, scaled by the cross-sectional area of the timber (A₍t₎) and the shear connection factor γ.
In summary, the formula combines the stiffness contributions of both materials and their interaction, adjusted by how effectively they are connected. While efficient for preliminary design, the γ-method neglects nonlinear slip behavior, time-dependent effects, and dynamic or seismic loading
.
4.1.2. Rheological Models
To capture long-term effects such as creep and shrinkage, rheological models using spring-dashpot analogs have been integrated into analytical formulations. These models help in predicting deflection over time and interface slip, especially important for serviceability design in long-span floors
.
4.2. Finite Element Modeling (FEM)
Finite Element Method (FEM) has become the dominant tool for the detailed analysis of TCC structures due to its capacity to model material heterogeneity, complex geometries, and nonlinear behavior.
4.2.1. 2D and 3D Solid Models
Early FEM models treated TCC beams using 2D layered beam elements or composite shell elements, assuming perfect or elastic bonding. Modern studies now use 3D solid models to represent timber, concrete, and shear connectors discretely. Contact elements and interface models allow simulation of slip and separation under load
| [17] | Gutkowski, R. M., Brown, K. A., & Shigidi, A. (2008). Behavior of older timber-concrete composite floor systems. Journal of Structural Engineering, 134(4), 556-562. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)0733-9445(2008)134:4(556) |
| [5] | Lukaszewska, E., Fragiacomo, M., & Johnsson, H. (2010). Laboratory tests and numerical analyses of prefabricated timber-concrete composite floors. Journal of Structural Engineering, 136(1), 101-110. |
[17, 5]
.
These models can simulate local failures, cracking, and post-yield behavior, which are crucial in seismic or impact analysis.
4.2.2. Connector Modeling Techniques
Several methods exist to model connectors in FEM:
I. Spring-based models to simulate nonlinear shear-slip relationships
II. Cohesive zone models (CZM) for adhesive layers
III. Contact and friction elements for dowels and bolts
Researchers have proposed parameter calibration frameworks to match experimental push-out test data with model predictions
| [6] | Salehi, H., & Zhang, Y. (2021). Machine learning-assisted prediction of shear behavior in timber-concrete composite joints. Materials, 14(11), 2870. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14112870 |
[6]
.
4.3. Time-dependent and Hygrothermal Modeling
Advanced models now incorporate moisture diffusion, temperature effects, and long-term deformation mechanisms:
I. Creep in timber is modeled using generalized Kelvin chains
II. Concrete shrinkage and thermal gradients are simulated via transient heat and mass transfer equations
III. These models have helped predict internal stress redistribution, cracking, and bond degradation, especially in outdoor or semi-exposed environments
Such approaches are valuable for life-cycle assessment and durability prediction under real-world exposure conditions.
4.4. Dynamic and Seismic Analysis
Dynamic modeling of TCC systems is increasingly relevant in urban environments with vibration-sensitive occupancy (e.g., offices, hospitals) and in seismic-prone regions.
4.4.1. Modal and Harmonic Analysis
FEM-based modal analysis helps identify natural frequencies and mode shapes. TCC systems often achieve better damping and lower peak acceleration, improving vibration comfort. These analyses are used in designing slender floor systems or pedestrian bridges
.
4.4.2. Nonlinear Time-history and Pushover Analysis
For seismic applications, nonlinear time-history analyses simulate cyclic connector behavior and energy dissipation. Pushover analyses are used to assess failure modes and plastic hinge formation. Studies indicate that screw-based connections offer superior ductility and resilience under earthquake loading
.
4.5. Machine Learning and AI-assisted Modeling
The integration of Artificial Intelligence (AI) and Machine Learning (ML) is a novel trend in the modeling of TCC systems. These tools are increasingly used to predict structural performance, optimize design variables, and reduce simulation time.
4.5.1. Surrogate Models and Metaheuristics
AI techniques such as Artificial Neural Networks (ANNs) and Support Vector Machines (SVMs) have been trained on FEM outputs to create surrogate models capable of real-time prediction of TCC behavior under varying parameters
| [6] | Salehi, H., & Zhang, Y. (2021). Machine learning-assisted prediction of shear behavior in timber-concrete composite joints. Materials, 14(11), 2870. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14112870 |
[6]
.
In parallel, metaheuristic optimization algorithms such as Genetic Algorithms (GAs) and Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO) are used to:
I. Optimize connector placement and spacing
II. Minimize deflection and material usage
III. Enhance seismic performance and cost-efficiency
4.5.2. Data-Driven Structural Health Monitoring
Emerging applications combine sensor data from TCC floors with AI-based monitoring frameworks to assess damage progression, load history, and maintenance needs
| [20] | Kwon, D., Kim, H., & Lee, J. (2020). Smart monitoring of hybrid timber structures using machine learning. Sensors, 20(21), 6200. https://doi.org/10.3390/s20216200 |
[20]
, (
figure 3).
Table 3. Comparative Summary of Modeling Approaches for TCC Systems.
Modeling Technique | Accuracy | Computational Effort | Time-Dependent Behavior | Seismic/Dynamic Capability | AI Integrability |
Gamma Method | Moderate | Low | Limited | No | No |
Rheological Analytical | Moderate | Low-Moderate | Good | No | No |
3D FEM | High | High | Good | Yes | Yes |
Cohesive Zone Modeling | High | Very High | Fair | Partial | No |
AI Surrogate Models | High | Low (runtime) | Moderate (with data) | Yes (if trained) | High |
Metaheuristic Optimization | Variable | Moderate | N/A | Yes | High |
Figure 3. Workflow of Advanced FEM and AI-Integrated TCC Modeling.
5. Sustainability, Life Cycle, and Fire Resistance
The integration of timber and concrete in composite systems offers a unique balance of sustainability, structural efficiency, and durability. Timber is a renewable, low-carbon material, while concrete provides compressive strength and mass for fire and acoustic performance. This synergy has propelled Timber-Concrete Composite (TCC) systems into the spotlight for low-to-mid-rise buildings, retrofits, and sustainable infrastructure. However, the long-term viability of TCC systems also hinges on their life cycle performance, environmental impact, and resilience to fire—a key concern in timber construction.
5.1. Sustainability and Environmental Performance
TCC systems offer multiple sustainability benefits by combining biogenic materials with recyclable mineral components. Timber contributes to carbon sequestration, while the reduced concrete volume in TCC (compared to full-concrete floors) lowers embodied carbon and energy demand during construction.
5.1.1. Carbon Footprint and Embodied Energy
Multiple Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) studies report that TCC floors can reduce the global warming potential (GWP) by up to 30-40% compared to reinforced concrete slabs
. This reduction stems from:
I. Lower cement usage
II. Use of sustainably harvested timber
III. Possibility for off-site prefabrication, reducing construction waste
The embodied energy of TCC systems also tends to be lower due to reduced transportation and faster installation times, especially when glue-laminated (glulam) or cross-laminated timber (CLT) is used
.
5.1.2. Circular Economy and End-of-life Strategies
Timber-concrete systems are easier to deconstruct and separate than steel-concrete composites, especially when dry connections (e.g., screws or mechanical fasteners) are used. This promotes:
I. Reuse of timber beams
II. Recyclability of concrete aggregates
III. Reduction of demolition waste
Emerging designs now prioritize design-for-disassembly (DfD) principles, particularly in modular TCC floor systems
.
5.2. Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) and Service Life Prediction
5.2.1. LCA Methodologies for TCC Systems
LCA frameworks such as EN 15978 and ISO 14040 are increasingly applied to TCC systems to evaluate performance across:
I. Raw material extraction
II. Manufacturing and transport
III. Operational energy consumption
IV. Maintenance, reuse, and disposal
Several studies report that TCC systems outperform full-concrete or steel-concrete counterparts across multiple environmental indicators (e.g., acidification, eutrophication, resource depletion)
.
5.2.2. Durability and Long-term Serviceability
TCC floors demonstrate favorable long-term performance under service loads due to:
I. Reduced creep and deflection (due to the stiff concrete layer)
II. Effective load distribution and stress sharing
III. Moisture-regulated behavior when vapor-permeable finishes are used
However, the long-term interface bond degradation—especially under wet-dry or freeze-thaw cycles—needs further investigation
.
5.3. Fire Resistance of TCC Systems
One of the most critical aspects of hybrid timber systems is their behavior under fire exposure. While concrete offers passive fire protection, timber is combustible and exhibits charring, which can compromise section integrity if not properly accounted for.
5.3.1. Fire Performance of Timber and Connections
I. Charring rate for softwood timber typically ranges from 0.6 to 0.9 mm/min, reducing the effective cross-section over time
.
II. Screwed and notched connections tend to lose stiffness and strength at elevated temperatures. Adhesive-based connectors are highly sensitive to heat.
Proper encapsulation, use of fire-retardant treatments, and design allowances for sacrificial charring layers can significantly improve fire performance.
5.3.2. TCC Behavior in Standard Fire Tests
Experimental studies (e.g.,
| [23] | Frangi, A., & Fontana, M. (2008). Fire behavior of timber-concrete composite floors. Fire Safety Journal, 43(7), 514-525. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.firesaf.2007.12.001 |
| [29] | Klippel, M., Frangi, A., & Welling, J. (2018). Timber structures under fire: State of the art and future needs. COST Action FP1404 Report. https://www.cost.eu/actions/FP1404/ |
[23, 29]
) show that well-designed TCC floors can achieve fire resistance ratings (REI) of 60 to 120 minutes, depending on:
I. Timber section thickness
II. Concrete topping depth
III. Connection type
IV. Ventilation conditions
The concrete layer provides heat shielding, slows charring, and enhances load-bearing capacity during fire exposure.
5.3.3. Design Recommendations for Fire-resistant TCC Systems
Design strategies include:
I. Over-dimensioning timber sections to account for charring
II. Using non-combustible or intumescent sealants at joints
III. Favoring mechanical fasteners over adhesives in fire zones
IV. Integrating performance-based fire engineering models and finite element fire simulations (e.g., SAFIR, Abaqus)
Table 4. Summary of Environmental and Fire Performance Parameters for TCC Systems.
Parameter | Timber-Concrete Composite | Reinforced Concrete | Steel-Concrete Composite |
Embodied Carbon (kg CO2e/m²) | 80-150 | 180-250 | 210-300 |
Recyclability | High | Medium | Low-Medium |
Design for Disassembly | Good (with dry connectors) | Poor | Limited |
Fire Resistance (REI Rating) | 60-120 min (with design) | 90-180 min | Variable (insulation needed) |
Charring Risk | Present (manageable) | None | None |
Maintenance & Retrofit Potential | High | Moderate | Low |
Figure 4. Fire Performance Mechanism in TCC Floor Systems.
Future Research Directions
I. Integration of LCA tools into BIM for real-time design evaluation
II. Moisture-responsive modeling of TCC long-term behavior
III. AI-based fire resistance prediction for hybrid systems
IV. Design-for-disassembly optimization in modular TCC structures
6. Challenges, Emerging Innovations, and Future Research Frontiers
Timber-Concrete Composite (TCC) structures hold great promise for sustainable, high-performance, and modular construction, but several challenges continue to hinder their widespread adoption in mainstream structural systems, especially for multi-story, infrastructure, and high-seismic applications. This section identifies key technical, regulatory, and practical barriers while highlighting emerging innovations and proposing forward-looking research directions to advance the field.
6.1. Technical and Structural Challenges
6.1.1. Interface Behavior and Connector Limitations
A primary technical challenge is the long-term behavior and durability of shear connectors. Mechanical connectors like screws, dowels, and notched joints are prone to slip, fatigue degradation, and moisture-induced swelling or shrinkage, especially under cyclic or seismic loading
.
Key gaps include:
I. Reliable modeling of interface slip under combined mechanical and environmental loading
II. Long-term bond degradation of adhesive connectors
III. Lack of standardized connector performance databases across materials, geometries, and climates
6.1.2. Limited Code Integration
Although several national design standards (e.g., Eurocode 5, AS 1720.1, and CSA O86) provide simplified provisions for TCC systems, unified global codes and performance-based guidelines are still lacking. This limits the use of TCC in public infrastructure and high-risk occupancy structures.
6.2. Construction and Practical Implementation Challenges
I. On-site variability: Moisture content, workmanship, and interface conditions can introduce inconsistencies.
II. Prefabrication vs in-situ assembly: While off-site fabrication improves quality, it requires precise tolerance control and logistical coordination.
III. Fire safety approval: Authorities often demand complex fire safety assessments for TCC floors, which slows regulatory acceptance in high-rise and urban buildings.
6.3. Emerging Innovations in TCC Systems
6.3.1. Smart and Adaptive Materials
I. Self-healing concrete overlays using encapsulated polymers or bacteria are being explored to extend service life and reduce maintenance.
II. Phase Change Materials (PCMs) integrated into concrete can regulate thermal performance, improving building energy efficiency
.
6.3.2. Bio-based and Recycled Composites
I. Research is advancing bio-epoxy adhesives, hemp-reinforced concretes, and engineered bamboo to replace synthetic or energy-intensive materials.
II. Recycled timber-concrete layers from deconstructed buildings are being tested for second-life TCC applications, promoting a circular economy
.
6.3.3. Modular and Robotic Construction
I. Modular TCC floor units with integrated MEP services are enabling rapid assembly, less waste, and digital traceability.
II. Robotic timber joinery and digital casting of concrete overlays (using 3D printing) are under development to improve precision and efficiency
.
6.4. Integration of AI, Digital Twins, and Structural Health Monitoring
6.4.1. Digital Twin Frameworks for Lifecycle Performance
I. Digital twins are being developed for TCC floors to track moisture, load, deflection, and connector health in real time using IoT sensors and cloud platforms
| [20] | Kwon, D., Kim, H., & Lee, J. (2020). Smart monitoring of hybrid timber structures using machine learning. Sensors, 20(21), 6200. https://doi.org/10.3390/s20216200 |
[20]
.
II. AI-integrated twins can predict degradation trajectories and trigger automated maintenance alerts, enhancing resilience and safety.
6.4.2. Machine Learning for Performance Prediction and Optimization
I. AI models, such as neural networks and ensemble regressors, are increasingly used to:
a. Predict failure modes
b. Calibrate FEM models from limited data
c. Optimize connector placement and structural layout
II. Hybrid approaches combining parametric modeling (e.g., Grasshopper) and reinforcement learning are being proposed for autonomous design generation.
6.5. Future Research Directions
The future of TCC systems lies at the intersection of material science, digital engineering, and performance-based design. Critical research frontiers include:
6.5.1. High-performance and Multi-hazard Resilience
I. Design of TCC systems that resist combined seismic-fire, impact, or vibration-sensitive environments
II. Development of ductile connectors and energy-dissipative joints for resilient design
6.5.2. Ultra-low Carbon and Bio-based Hybrids
I. Life-cycle studies of bio-concrete and cross-laminated bamboo (CLB) in TCC
II. Integration of low-clinker cements, recycled concrete aggregates (RCAs), and carbon-negative binders
6.5.3. Standardization and Certification Frameworks
I. Harmonization of international design codes and development of certification procedures
II. Expansion of fire performance testing protocols for new connectors and adhesive systems
6.5.4. Autonomous and AI-driven Design Systems
I. Development of AI-assisted design tools integrated into BIM workflows for parametric optimization
II. Creation of feedback loops between construction site data and design refinements using reinforcement learning
Table 5. Summary of Challenges and Innovative Research Directions in TCC Systems.
Challenge Area | Key Issues | Emerging Solutions | Research Frontiers |
Interface Performance | Slip, fatigue, degradation under moisture | AI-based FEM calibration, smart sensors | Hybrid connector optimization under multi-hazard loads |
Fire Resistance | Charring, connection failure | Fire-resistant coatings, predictive FEM | Fire-seismic performance models and testing |
Environmental Sustainability | Embodied carbon, recyclability | Bio-based adhesives, recycled materials | Circular life cycle design with DfD and digital passports |
Design Complexity | Lack of code standardization | Performance-based design tools | Code harmonization and AI-enabled compliance tools |
Construction and Prefabrication | On-site tolerance, quality control | Robotic joinery, digital casting | Modular plug-and-play TCC components |
Monitoring and Maintenance | Unpredictable degradation | IoT-based digital twins | Real-time maintenance decision systems |
Figure 5. Research Roadmap for Timber-Concrete Composite Structures (2025-2040).
7. Conclusion
Timber-Concrete Composite (TCC) structures have emerged as a promising hybrid solution at the intersection of structural performance, sustainability, and modern construction innovation. By leveraging the complementary strengths of timber (lightweight, renewable) and concrete (compressive strength, durability), TCC systems offer optimized solutions for a broad range of applications, including residential buildings, commercial floors, bridges, and retrofitting projects.
This review provided a comprehensive synthesis of TCC evolution, detailing their material composition, mechanical behavior, connection strategies, and state-of-the-art modeling techniques. It highlighted how modern numerical methods—ranging from advanced FEM to AI-driven hybrid models—are reshaping how TCC systems are designed, validated, and optimized. Furthermore, the environmental benefits of TCC, such as reduced embodied carbon, enhanced recyclability, and compatibility with circular economy principles, have been critically evaluated through life-cycle and sustainability assessments.
Despite these advancements, several challenges remain. These include interface durability, fire performance under multi-hazard conditions, prefabrication logistics, and the lack of standardized global design codes. However, the field is responding dynamically with innovations in bio-based materials, robotic construction, modular systems, and real-time digital monitoring frameworks.
Looking forward, future research should focus on holistic, AI-augmented design methodologies, integration of Digital Twins and IoT-enabled life-cycle tracking, and the development of fire-resilient, low-carbon, and disassemblable hybrid systems. To truly unlock the potential of TCC structures, interdisciplinary collaboration is essential—bridging structural engineering, materials science, sustainability science, digital technologies, and policy development.
In conclusion, Timber-Concrete Composite structures represent not only a technical evolution in structural engineering but also a strategic shift toward resilient, adaptable, and sustainable construction practices for the 21st century. By aligning with global goals for carbon neutrality and climate resilience, TCC systems are poised to play a pivotal role in the future of the built environment.
Abbreviations
TCC | Timber-concrete Composite |
DfD | Design for Disassembly |
glulam | Glued-laminated Timber |
CLT | Cross-laminated Timber |
UHPC | Ultra-high-performance Concrete |
FEM | Finite Element Method |
AI | Timber-concrete Composite |
ML | Design for Disassembly |
Author Contributions
Girmay Mengesha Azanaw is the sole author. The author read and approved the final manuscript.
Data Access Statement and Material Availability
The adequate resources of this article are publicly accessible.
Funding
This article has not been funded by any organizations or agencies. This independence ensures that the research is conducted with objectivity and without any external influence.
Conflicts of Interest
The author declares no conflicts of interest.
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APA Style
Azanaw, G. M. (2025). Timber-Concrete Composite Structures: A Comprehensive Review of Emerging Trends, Advanced Modeling Approaches, and Future Research Frontiers for Sustainable Hybrid Construction. Engineering and Applied Sciences, 10(3), 62-74. https://doi.org/10.11648/j.eas.20251003.14
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Azanaw, G. M. Timber-Concrete Composite Structures: A Comprehensive Review of Emerging Trends, Advanced Modeling Approaches, and Future Research Frontiers for Sustainable Hybrid Construction. Eng. Appl. Sci. 2025, 10(3), 62-74. doi: 10.11648/j.eas.20251003.14
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Azanaw GM. Timber-Concrete Composite Structures: A Comprehensive Review of Emerging Trends, Advanced Modeling Approaches, and Future Research Frontiers for Sustainable Hybrid Construction. Eng Appl Sci. 2025;10(3):62-74. doi: 10.11648/j.eas.20251003.14
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@article{10.11648/j.eas.20251003.14,
author = {Girmay Mengesha Azanaw},
title = {Timber-Concrete Composite Structures: A Comprehensive Review of Emerging Trends, Advanced Modeling Approaches, and Future Research Frontiers for Sustainable Hybrid Construction
},
journal = {Engineering and Applied Sciences},
volume = {10},
number = {3},
pages = {62-74},
doi = {10.11648/j.eas.20251003.14},
url = {https://doi.org/10.11648/j.eas.20251003.14},
eprint = {https://article.sciencepublishinggroup.com/pdf/10.11648.j.eas.20251003.14},
abstract = {Timber-Concrete Composite (TCC) structures represent a pivotal advancement in hybrid construction, combining the tensile strength and sustainability of timber with the compressive durability of concrete. This synergy has made TCC systems increasingly relevant in modern architectural and engineering applications, especially as the industry seeks efficient, eco-friendly solutions. This review traces the historical development of TCC technology and highlights its practical applications across residential, commercial, and infrastructural projects. Special focus is placed on the technical elements that define TCC performance, including material compatibility, shear connection mechanisms, and structural behavior under static, dynamic, and environmental loading. Recent innovations in modeling and design—ranging from finite element analysis to parametric and data-driven tools—are also examined, with attention to how these approaches are reshaping structural assessment and optimization. In particular, the integration of machine learning algorithms and advanced simulation workflows offers new possibilities for predictive performance modeling and adaptive design strategies. The review further explores fire resistance, acoustic performance, and long-term durability, with insights into how these factors influence code development and real-world implementation. Sustainability is a central theme, as TCC systems offer reduced carbon footprints, enhanced material efficiency, and alignment with life-cycle and circular economy principles. The role of TCC in modular construction and prefabrication is also discussed, alongside challenges in disassembly and reuse. Looking ahead, the review surveys emerging research directions, including the use of bio-based and recycled materials, robotic construction techniques, and digital twin technologies for real-time structural monitoring. By providing an integrated overview of material science, engineering practice, and technological innovation, this review serves as a comprehensive resource for academics, practitioners, and policymakers aiming to leverage TCC systems in the pursuit of resilient and sustainable built environments.},
year = {2025}
}
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TY - JOUR
T1 - Timber-Concrete Composite Structures: A Comprehensive Review of Emerging Trends, Advanced Modeling Approaches, and Future Research Frontiers for Sustainable Hybrid Construction
AU - Girmay Mengesha Azanaw
Y1 - 2025/06/30
PY - 2025
N1 - https://doi.org/10.11648/j.eas.20251003.14
DO - 10.11648/j.eas.20251003.14
T2 - Engineering and Applied Sciences
JF - Engineering and Applied Sciences
JO - Engineering and Applied Sciences
SP - 62
EP - 74
PB - Science Publishing Group
SN - 2575-1468
UR - https://doi.org/10.11648/j.eas.20251003.14
AB - Timber-Concrete Composite (TCC) structures represent a pivotal advancement in hybrid construction, combining the tensile strength and sustainability of timber with the compressive durability of concrete. This synergy has made TCC systems increasingly relevant in modern architectural and engineering applications, especially as the industry seeks efficient, eco-friendly solutions. This review traces the historical development of TCC technology and highlights its practical applications across residential, commercial, and infrastructural projects. Special focus is placed on the technical elements that define TCC performance, including material compatibility, shear connection mechanisms, and structural behavior under static, dynamic, and environmental loading. Recent innovations in modeling and design—ranging from finite element analysis to parametric and data-driven tools—are also examined, with attention to how these approaches are reshaping structural assessment and optimization. In particular, the integration of machine learning algorithms and advanced simulation workflows offers new possibilities for predictive performance modeling and adaptive design strategies. The review further explores fire resistance, acoustic performance, and long-term durability, with insights into how these factors influence code development and real-world implementation. Sustainability is a central theme, as TCC systems offer reduced carbon footprints, enhanced material efficiency, and alignment with life-cycle and circular economy principles. The role of TCC in modular construction and prefabrication is also discussed, alongside challenges in disassembly and reuse. Looking ahead, the review surveys emerging research directions, including the use of bio-based and recycled materials, robotic construction techniques, and digital twin technologies for real-time structural monitoring. By providing an integrated overview of material science, engineering practice, and technological innovation, this review serves as a comprehensive resource for academics, practitioners, and policymakers aiming to leverage TCC systems in the pursuit of resilient and sustainable built environments.
VL - 10
IS - 3
ER -
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