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Research Article
Artificial Intelligence: The Benefits and Ethics of Its Use in Every Sector
Arjana Kasaj Llano*
Issue:
Volume 9, Issue 3, September 2026
Pages:
304-313
Received:
11 May 2026
Accepted:
25 May 2026
Published:
17 July 2026
Abstract: We live in the world of digitalization of Artificial Intelligence which has brought significant improvements in many sectors of life in human society. Artificial intelligence paradigms generate results, objectives, solve problems that previously could not be solved and were blocked in a dead end that could not be solved. It has intervened and solved problems in every field in education, health, judiciary, prosecution, police, e-government, in the approximation of legislation with that of the European Union in health, science, technology, information, transport, financial systems and many other sectors. The first acts were generated by the actors of the European Union, they brought the first act in the AI Directive, the Regulation, and then followed them all over the world and developed acts on Artificial Intelligence. It has its positive benefits, but it also has some negative effects by interfering and violating human rights, privacy, personal data security, the whole world must draft policies to protect human rights and to respecting the Intelligence Code of Ethics. Have policies been taken for criminal offenses committed by artificial intelligence?My opinion is that the time has come, in every country in the world, to sanction criminal offenses committed by artificial intelligence in criminal codes.”How has Artificial Intelligence affected the world in recent years? What have been the benefits to society? Have provisions been formed in the Criminal Code for the offenses that come as a result of AI?
Abstract: We live in the world of digitalization of Artificial Intelligence which has brought significant improvements in many sectors of life in human society. Artificial intelligence paradigms generate results, objectives, solve problems that previously could not be solved and were blocked in a dead end that could not be solved. It has intervened and solve...
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Research Article
Jurisdiction, Power and the Denial of Justice: The Impact of Jurisdictional Incompetence on Fair Trial Rights in Cameroon
Nelson Agbor*
Issue:
Volume 9, Issue 3, September 2026
Pages:
314-328
Received:
13 June 2026
Accepted:
23 June 2026
Published:
17 July 2026
Abstract: The right to a fair trial is a cornerstone of the rule of law. In Cameroon, however, procedural objections based on jurisdictional incompetence have increasingly impeded effective judicial protection. Although jurisdictional rules are intended to promote legal certainty and the orderly administration of justice, their application has, in some cases, led to prolonged delays, the denial of remedies, and the erosion of fair trial guarantees. This article examines how jurisdictional incompetence operates within the Cameroonian judicial system and assesses its implications for access to justice, due process, and the protection of human rights. The study adopts a doctrinal methodology, complemented by socio-legal analysis. It draws on constitutional provisions, statutory instruments, judicial decisions, and international human rights standards, including the African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights. The analysis is further informed by Critical Legal Theory and the Law-and-Society approach, which regard law as operating within broader structures of political power and institutional influence. These perspectives provide a framework for examining how procedural doctrines may shape access to justice and reinforce existing power relations. The findings reveal that jurisdictional incompetence extends beyond a technical procedural issue and may serve as a mechanism that limits the availability of timely and effective remedies. Frequent transfers of cases between courts, restrictive interpretations of jurisdictional mandates, and prolonged disputes over competence often undermine the right to a hearing within a reasonable time and weaken public confidence in judicial institutions. In politically sensitive cases, jurisdictional challenges may also facilitate indirect interference with judicial accountability. The article argues that meaningful reform requires a rights-oriented approach to jurisdiction that prioritises substantive justice over excessive procedural formalism. It concludes by proposing legal and institutional reforms to strengthen fair trial guarantees, enhance judicial efficiency, and reinforce the rule of law in Cameroon.
Abstract: The right to a fair trial is a cornerstone of the rule of law. In Cameroon, however, procedural objections based on jurisdictional incompetence have increasingly impeded effective judicial protection. Although jurisdictional rules are intended to promote legal certainty and the orderly administration of justice, their application has, in some cases...
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Research Article
The Institutionalization of Social Distance: Reconsidering Classical Islamic Classifications of Non-muslims in Light of the Qur'anic Vision of Humanity
Mark A Gabriel*
Issue:
Volume 9, Issue 3, September 2026
Pages:
329-345
Received:
18 June 2026
Accepted:
20 July 2026
Published:
30 July 2026
Abstract: This article examines the historical transformation of the non-Muslim from a human being addressed within the Qur’an’s universal moral vision into a legal category defined by later Islamic jurisprudence. Drawing on textual, historical, and conceptual analysis, it argues that classical juristic classifications such as dhimmī, muʿāhid, mustaʾmin, and ḥarbī emerged within specific historical contexts shaped by imperial governance, military conflict, taxation, treaty-making, and communal administration. Although these categories served important regulatory functions in medieval Muslim societies, their continued transmission contributed to the institutionalization of social distance between Muslims and non-Muslims. The article distinguishes between revelation and jurisprudence, arguing that the Qur’an’s primary vocabulary concerning humanity is ethical and universal rather than administrative and classificatory. The Qur’an speaks of humankind, the children of Adam, human dignity, justice, mercy, freedom of conscience, moral responsibility, and mutual recognition. By contrast, later legal discourse often approached non-Muslims through inherited categories of status and political relationship. The central claim is not that classical jurists acted without sincerity or intellectual sophistication, but that legal frameworks developed for medieval societies should not be treated as timeless definitions of human relationships. In contemporary pluralistic societies shaped by citizenship, constitutional equality, religious freedom, and shared civic belonging, inherited classifications require critical re-examination. The article therefore proposes a Qur’anic framework for Muslim-non-Muslim relations rooted in human dignity, justice, mercy, freedom, accountability before God, and cooperation in goodness. It concludes that sustainable reform must arise from within the Islamic tradition itself, not through the mere importation of external frameworks, and that recovering the Qur’an’s vision of the human person offers a more faithful and constructive foundation for human coexistence in the modern world.
Abstract: This article examines the historical transformation of the non-Muslim from a human being addressed within the Qur’an’s universal moral vision into a legal category defined by later Islamic jurisprudence. Drawing on textual, historical, and conceptual analysis, it argues that classical juristic classifications such as dhimmī, muʿāhid, mustaʾmin, and...
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Research Article
Navigating the Complexities of Cross-Border Data Transfers: Impacts on Multinational Enterprises and Strategic Responses to Regulatory Discrepancies
Amos William Omolo*
Issue:
Volume 9, Issue 3, September 2026
Pages:
346-352
Received:
26 November 2025
Accepted:
6 May 2026
Published:
6 August 2026
DOI:
10.11648/j.ijls.20260903.14
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Abstract: Modern social and economic relations depend on data as the basis of global trade, digital services, and the operations of MNEs. However, the rapid expansion of cross-border data flows has intensified concerns regarding privacy, security, and regulatory oversight, particularly as data increasingly diffuses across multiple jurisdictions. Countries have in turn pursued divergent regulatory solutions, such as data localization policies and transfer limits, leading to a great deal of fragmentation in data governance globally. The paper will discuss differences in regulatory practices in major jurisdictions and discuss the implications of such differences on the operations of MNEs. Based on the institutional logics theory, it describes how divergent policy frameworks are created by existing national priorities, including privacy security, economic liberalization, and national security. The research uses a qualitative document review of policy documents, regulatory tools, and a subset of case-based evidence to determine essential trends and effects. The findings show that, fragmentation of regulations increases compliance costs, operational inefficiencies, and uncertainty of the law to MNEs. In reaction, some adaptive strategies are taken by the firms, such as localized data management and compliance systems, and policymakers are willing to have more international coordination. The paper adds to the body of writing on international business and data governance on the importance of additional interoperable regulatory frameworks that would facilitate the balance between data mobility and trust and protection.
Abstract: Modern social and economic relations depend on data as the basis of global trade, digital services, and the operations of MNEs. However, the rapid expansion of cross-border data flows has intensified concerns regarding privacy, security, and regulatory oversight, particularly as data increasingly diffuses across multiple jurisdictions. Countries ha...
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Research Article
Criminal Liability of “Business Shutdown Enforcers”:
A Comparative Study on Emerging Legal Accountability Challenges in China and Beyond
Hongshan Duan*
Issue:
Volume 9, Issue 3, September 2026
Pages:
353-360
Received:
29 June 2026
Accepted:
8 July 2026
Published:
6 August 2026
DOI:
10.11648/j.ijls.20260903.15
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Abstract: The rise of "Business Shutdown Enforcers" in China, a profession where individuals are tasked with forcibly closing businesses, often through coercive or borderline illegal methods, poses distinct challenges to Chinese criminal law. While civil remedies provide some regulatory mechanisms, the absence of criminal law responses highlights gaps in addressing coercive practices that exploit legal grey areas. This paper examines these gaps within China’s criminal law framework, focusing on whether and how existing provisions, such as those related to extortion, property damage, or unlawful interference, can be applied to regulate such behavior. To contextualize these challenges globally, the paper further explores analogous examples from other jurisdictions. Aggressive debt collection practices in the United States and United Kingdom, often criticized for skirting the boundaries of legality, reveal similar accountability gaps, while protection rackets managed by organized crime groups such as the Mafia in Italy or the Yakuza in Japan further highlight the harm caused by coercive practices that destabilize businesses and communities. In South Korea, extrajudicial business disruptions during labor disputes exemplify the legal tensions between economic interests and enforcement. Together, these examples demonstrate a shared international struggle to regulate unconventional professions operating in legal grey zones, and underscore that criminal law must evolve to address such emerging accountability challenges, particularly in cases where existing provisions fail to capture the full scope of harm caused by these professions. By analyzing regulatory approaches across jurisdictions, this study provides a framework for developing more robust legal mechanisms, not only in China but in other countries facing similar issues, offering insights into how criminal law can adapt to meet the needs of an evolving society.
Abstract: The rise of "Business Shutdown Enforcers" in China, a profession where individuals are tasked with forcibly closing businesses, often through coercive or borderline illegal methods, poses distinct challenges to Chinese criminal law. While civil remedies provide some regulatory mechanisms, the absence of criminal law responses highlights gaps in add...
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Research Article
Schema Markup Adoption in Personal Injury Law Firm Websites: A Systematic Analysis of Structured Data Implementation Across North American Legal Services
Behzad Hussain*
Issue:
Volume 9, Issue 3, September 2026
Pages:
361-369
Received:
12 June 2026
Accepted:
10 July 2026
Published:
10 August 2026
DOI:
10.11648/j.ijls.20260903.16
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Views:
Abstract: Structured data markup, particularly JSON-LD implementations of the Schema.org vocabulary, has become a critical factor in how search engines interpret, classify, and surface web content. Despite growing recognition of schema markup's role in search engine optimization (SEO), there has been limited empirical investigation into its adoption within specific professional service verticals. This study presents a systematic analysis of schema markup implementation across 500 personal injury (PI) law firm websites operating in the United States. Through automated crawling and programmatic code inspection, we examine the prevalence of key schema types, including LegalService, Attorney, Organization, FAQPage, BreadcrumbList, and WebPage, and assess the completeness, accuracy, and semantic richness of deployed structured data. Our findings reveal significant gaps: 67.6% of sampled firms implement some form of JSON-LD markup, yet only 40.0% deploy the LegalService schema type specifically designed for legal service providers. The mean Schema Completeness Index (SCI) across sites with structured data was 11.8 out of a possible 25. Entity disambiguation remains the weakest dimension: only 84.0% of sites with schema include @id properties and 81.4% include sameAs references. These findings have implications for legal services discoverability in both traditional search engine results pages (SERPs) and emerging AI-mediated answer engines. We propose a Structured Data Maturity Model for legal service websites and outline directions for future research.
Abstract: Structured data markup, particularly JSON-LD implementations of the Schema.org vocabulary, has become a critical factor in how search engines interpret, classify, and surface web content. Despite growing recognition of schema markup's role in search engine optimization (SEO), there has been limited empirical investigation into its adoption within s...
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Research Article
A Critical Look at the Protection of Women in Cameroonian Criminal Law
Kamgoui Kuitche Victorine*
Issue:
Volume 9, Issue 3, September 2026
Pages:
370-380
Received:
28 June 2026
Accepted:
10 July 2026
Published:
11 August 2026
DOI:
10.11648/j.ijls.20260903.17
Downloads:
Views:
Abstract: Despite Cameroon’s ratification of key international instruments such as CEDAW and the Maputo Protocol, coupled with the legislative advances introduced under the 2016 Penal Code, the criminal law protection afforded to Cameroonian women remains largely ineffective in practice. Empirical and statistical data on violations of women’s physical integrity, dignity, and moral autonomy continue to present an alarming picture. Reports of domestic violence, sexual assault, harmful traditional practices, and other forms of gender-based violence have not only persisted but have resurged in both intensity and complexity in recent years. In light of this multifaceted and escalating phenomenon of violence against women, there is an urgent need for a profound reform of criminal law to bring it into alignment with contemporary social realities. The current legal framework lacks a dedicated feminist legislative approach and contains no specific provision that directly criminalizes violence against women as a distinct category of offense. This legislative gap limits the capacity of the justice system to prevent, punish, and deter such violations effectively. The central objective of this article is therefore to provoke critical scholarly reflection on the inadequacies of positive law in Cameroon regarding the protection of women. By exposing these normative deficiencies, the study seeks to propose concrete and context-appropriate reforms aimed at strengthening the criminal protection of women and ensuring substantive rather than merely formal equality before the law. To obtain our result, the doctrinal/legal analyses method will be used.
Abstract: Despite Cameroon’s ratification of key international instruments such as CEDAW and the Maputo Protocol, coupled with the legislative advances introduced under the 2016 Penal Code, the criminal law protection afforded to Cameroonian women remains largely ineffective in practice. Empirical and statistical data on violations of women’s physical integr...
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