| Peer-Reviewed

Effect of Difficulty Level and Time-Pressure on the Morning-Evening Differences in Accuracy and Consistency of Throwing Darts Among 9-10 Year-Old Boys

Received: 28 October 2016     Accepted: 9 December 2016     Published: 6 January 2017
Views:       Downloads:
Abstract

This study investigated the impact of task difficulty level and time-pressure on the morning-evening changes in psychomotor performance and perceived difficulty to it among 9–10 years-old boys. Twelve healthy right-handed boys (age = 9.8 ± 0.5 years, height = 144 ± 6.2 cm and body mass = 32.7 ± 3.4 kg) volunteered to take part in the study. They were asked to throw darts to a target from a short (2m, SD) and long (2.37m, LD) distances, either in free (no time limitation, NC) or time-pressure (TPC) conditions, on nonconsecutive days and in a counter-balanced randomized order. Mean scores, missed darts and variability of scores were recorded and analyzed using a three-way ANOVA with repeated measures. Intra-aural temperature and perceived difficulty were recorded too. The results showed higher performance in the afternoon than the in the morning, with higher mean scores around the time of maximum oral temperature (p<0.001). The number of missed darts and variability of scores were lower at 17:00 h in comparison with 07:00 h (p<0.05). Perceived difficulty decreased significantly with time-of-day, with greater values at 07:00 h than at 17:00 h (p<0.05). Psychomotor performance was better in the afternoon than the morning. It seems that, in the early morning, children are less sensitive to the increased level of difficulty when under time-pressure than when throwing a greater distance from the target.

Published in International Journal of Sports Science and Physical Education (Volume 1, Issue 3)
DOI 10.11648/j.ijsspe.20160103.11
Page(s) 28-34
Creative Commons

This is an Open Access article, distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, provided the original work is properly cited.

Copyright

Copyright © The Author(s), 2017. Published by Science Publishing Group

Keywords

Circadian Rhythm, Difficulty Level, Psychomotor Performance, Perceived Difficulty, Time Pressure

References
[1] Sullivan, J., Kantak, S., and Burtner, A. 2008. “Motor Learning in Children: FeedbackEffects on Skill Acquisition.” Physical Therapy 88: 720-732.
[2] Guadagnoli, M. A., and Lee, T. D. 2004. “Challenge point: a framework for conceptualizing the effects of various practice conditions in motor learning.” J Mot Behav 36: 212–224.
[3] Chtourou, H., Aloui, A., Hammouda, O., Chaouachi, A., Chamari, K., and Souissi, N. 2013. “The effect of time-of-day and judo match on short-term maximal performances judokas.” Biol Rhythm Res 44: 797-806.
[4] Elghoul, Y., Frikha, M., Abedelmlak, S., Chtourou, H., Dammak, K., Chamari, K., and Souissi, N. 2014. “Time-of-day effect on dart throwing performance and the perception of the difficulty of the task in 9-10 year-old boys.” Biological Rhythm Research 45: 523-532.
[5] Masmoudi, L., Gharbi, A., Chtourou, H., and Souissi, N. 2015. “Effect of time-of-day on soccer specific skills in children: Psychological and physiological responses.” Biological Rhythm Research 46: 59-68.
[6] Souissi,H., Chtourou, H., and Chaouachi, A., et al. (2012). The effect of training at a specific time-of-day on the diurnal variations of short-term exercise performances in 10- to 11-year-old boys. Pediatric Exercise Science. 24, 84–99.
[7] Jarraya, S., Jarraya, M., and Souissi, N. 2014. “Diurnal variations of cognitive performances in Tunisian children.” Biological Rhythm Research 45: 61-67.
[8] Pollock, B. J, and Lee, T. D. 1997. Dissociated contextual interference effects in children and adults. Percept Mot Skills 84: 851–858.
[9] Tipper, S. P., Bourque, T., Anderson, S., and Brehaut, J. C. 1989. “Mechanisms of attention: A developmental study.” Journal of Experimental Child Psychology 48: 353-378.
[10] Ferguson, A. N., and Bowey, J. A. 2005. “Global processing speed as a mediator of developmental changes in children’s auditory memory span.” J Exp Child Psychol 91: 89–112.
[11] Schumann-Hengsteler, R. 1996. “Children’s and adults’ visuospatial memory: the game concentration.” J Genet Psychol 157: 77–92.
[12] Czernochowski, D., Mecklinger, A., Johansson, M., and Brinkmann, M. 2005. “Age-related differences in familiarity and recollection: ERP evidence from a recognition memory study in children and young adults.” Cogn Affect BehavNeurosci 5:417–433.
[13] Yuzawa, M. 2001. “Effects of word length on young children’s memory performance.” MemCognit 29: 557–564.
[14] Lagers-van Haselen, G. C., van der Steen, J., and Frens, M. A. 2000. “Copying strategies for patterns by children and adults.” Percept Mot Skills 91: 603–615.
[15] Karatekin, C., Marcus, D. J., and Couperus, J. W. 2007. “Regulation of cognitive resources during sustained attention and working memory in 10-year-olds and adults.” Psychophysiology 44: 128–144.
[16] Davids, K., Renshaw, I., Pinder, R., Araújo, A., and Vilar, L. 2012. “Principles of Motor Learning in Ecological Dynamics A comment on Functions of Learning and the Acquisition of Motor Skills (With Reference to Sport).” The Open Sports Sciences Journal 5:113-117.
[17] Drust, B., Waterhouse, J., Atkinson, G., Edwards, B., and Reilly, T. 2005. “Circadian rhythms in sports performance: An update.” Chronobiol. Int 22: 21–44.
[18] Li, Y., and Belkin, N. J. 2008. A faceted approach to conceptualizing tasks in information seeking. Information Processing & Management 44: 1822–1837.
[19] Kim, J. 2006. “Task difficulty as a predictor and indicator of web searching interaction.” Proceedings of CHI’06. 959-964.
[20] Bell, D., and Ruthven, I. 2004. “Searcher's assessments of task complexity for Web searching. Advances in information retrieval.” Proceedings of ECIR ’04: 57-71.
[21] Reis, J., Schambra, H. M., Cohen, L. G., Buch, E. R., Fritsch, B., Zarahn, E., Celnik, P. A. and Krakauer, J. W. 2009. Non invasive cortical stimulation enhances motor skill acquisition over multiple days through an effect on consolidation. ProcNatlAcadSci USA 106: 1590–1595.
[22] Lipps, D. B., Eckner, T. J., Richardson, K. J., and Ashton-Miller, J. A. 2013. “How gender and task difficulty affect a sport-protective response in young adults.” Journal of Sports Sciences. 7: 723–730.
[23] Hardy, L., and Parfitt, G. 1991. “A catastrophe model of anxiety and performance.” The British Journal of Psychology 82: 163–178.
[24] Hardy, L., Mullen, R., and Jones, G. 1996. “Knowledge and conscious control of motor actions under stress.” The British Journal of Psychology 87: 621–636.
[25] Wan, C. Y., and Huon, G. F. 2005. “Performance degradation under pressure in music: An examination of attentional processes.” Psychology of Music 33: 155–172.
[26] Lewis, B. P., and Linder, D. E. 1997. “Thinking about choking? Attentional processes and paradoxical performance.” Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 23: 937–944.
[27] Baumeister, R. F., and Showers, C. J. 1986. “A review of paradoxical performance effects: Choking under pressure in sports and mental tests.” European Journal of Social Psychology 16: 361–383.
[28] Beilock, S. L., and Carr, T. H. 2001. “On the fragility of skilled performance: What governs choking under pressure?” Journal of Experimental Psychology: General 130: 701–725.
[29] Lam, W. K., Maxwell, J. P., and Masters, R. S. W. 2009. “Analogy versus explicit learning of a modified basketball shooting task: Performance and kinematic outcomes.” Journal of Sports Sciences 27: 179–191.
[30] Baumeister, R. F., and Showers, C. J. 1986. “A review of paradoxical performance effects: Choking under pressure in sports and mental tests.” European Journal of Social Psychology 16: 361–383.
[31] Wilson, M. 2008. “From processing efficiency to attentional control: A mechanistic account of the anxiety-performance relationship.” International Review of Sport and Exercise Psychology 1: 184–202.
[32] Tanner, M. 1962. “Growth at adolescence.” 2nd ed. Oxford: Blackwell Scientific.
[33] Horne, J. A., and Ostberg, O.1976. “A self-assessment questionnaire to determine morningness-eveningness in human circadian rhythms.”Int J Chronobiol 4 (2): 97-110.
[34] Koyuncu, M. 2011. “Broadbent’s cognitive approach and its effect on motor performance in sports.” Psychology 2: 472–476.
[35] Emanuel, M., Jarus, T., and Bart, O. 2008. “Effect of focus of attention and age on motor acquisition, retention, and transfer: a randomized trial.” PhysTher 88: 251–260.
[36] Benjamin, J., Edwards, B., and Waterhouse, J. 2009. “Effects of one night of partial sleep deprivation upon diurnal rhythms of accuracy and consistency in throwing darts.” Chronobiology International 264: 756–768.
[37] Delignières, D., Famose, J. P., Thépaut-Mathieu, C., and Fleurance, P. 1993.”A psychophysical study on difficulty ratings in rock climbing.” International Journal of Sport Psychology 24: 404–416.
[38] Edwards, B., Atkinson, G., Reilly, T., Waterhouse, J., Godfrey, R., and Budgett, R. 2000. “Use of melatonin in recovery from jet-lag following an eastward flight across 10 time-zones.” Ergonomics 43:1501–1513.
[39] Atkinson, G., Todd, C., Reilly, T., and Waterhouse, J. 2005. “Diurnal variation in cycling performance: Influence of warm-up.” Journal of Sports Sciences 23:321–329.
[40] Edwards, B., Lindsay, K., and Waterhouse, J. 2005. “Effect of time of day on the accuracy and consistency of the badminton serve.” Ergonomics 48: 1488–1498.
[41] Fitts, P. 1954. “The information capacity of the human motor system in controlling the amplitude of movement.” Journal of Experimental Psychology47: 381–391.
[42] Etnyre, B. 1998. “Accuracy characteristics of throwing as a result of maximum force effort.” Perceptual and Motor Skills 86: 1211–1217.
[43] Atkinson, G., and Reilly, T. 1996. “Circadian variations in sporting performance.” Sports Medicine21: 292–312.
[44] Bonnefond, A., Rohmer, O., Hoeft, A., and Muzet, A., Tassi, P. 2003. “Interaction of age with time of day and mental load in different cognitive tasks.” Perceptual Motor Skills 96: 1223–1236.
[45] Bonnet, M. (2000). Sleep deprivation. In Dement WC, ed. Principles and practice of sleep medicine. (Philadelphia: Saunders), 53–7.
[46] Jourden, J., Bandura, A., and Banfield, T. 1991. “The impact of conceptions of ability on self-regulators factors and motor skill acquisition.” Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology 8: 213–226.
[47] Burton, D. 1989. “Winning isn't everything: examining the impact of performance goals on collegiate swimmers’ cognition and performance.” The Sport Psychologist 3: 105–132.
[48] Frömer, R., Hafner, V., and Sommer, W. 2012. “Aiming for the bull’s eye: Preparing for throwing investigated with event-related brain potentials.” Psychophysiology 49: 335–344.
[49] Kukla, A. 1972. “Foundations of an attributional theory of performance.” Psychological Review 79: 454-470.
[50] Dornic, S., M. 1986. Traitement de l'information, stress et différences interindividuelles. Le Travail Humain49:61–73.
Cite This Article
  • APA Style

    Yousri Elghoul, Mohamed Frikha, Nessrine Chaâri, Karim Chamari, Nizar Souissi. (2017). Effect of Difficulty Level and Time-Pressure on the Morning-Evening Differences in Accuracy and Consistency of Throwing Darts Among 9-10 Year-Old Boys. International Journal of Sports Science and Physical Education, 1(3), 28-34. https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ijsspe.20160103.11

    Copy | Download

    ACS Style

    Yousri Elghoul; Mohamed Frikha; Nessrine Chaâri; Karim Chamari; Nizar Souissi. Effect of Difficulty Level and Time-Pressure on the Morning-Evening Differences in Accuracy and Consistency of Throwing Darts Among 9-10 Year-Old Boys. Int. J. Sports Sci. Phys. Educ. 2017, 1(3), 28-34. doi: 10.11648/j.ijsspe.20160103.11

    Copy | Download

    AMA Style

    Yousri Elghoul, Mohamed Frikha, Nessrine Chaâri, Karim Chamari, Nizar Souissi. Effect of Difficulty Level and Time-Pressure on the Morning-Evening Differences in Accuracy and Consistency of Throwing Darts Among 9-10 Year-Old Boys. Int J Sports Sci Phys Educ. 2017;1(3):28-34. doi: 10.11648/j.ijsspe.20160103.11

    Copy | Download

  • @article{10.11648/j.ijsspe.20160103.11,
      author = {Yousri Elghoul and Mohamed Frikha and Nessrine Chaâri and Karim Chamari and Nizar Souissi},
      title = {Effect of Difficulty Level and Time-Pressure on the Morning-Evening Differences in Accuracy and Consistency of Throwing Darts Among 9-10 Year-Old Boys},
      journal = {International Journal of Sports Science and Physical Education},
      volume = {1},
      number = {3},
      pages = {28-34},
      doi = {10.11648/j.ijsspe.20160103.11},
      url = {https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ijsspe.20160103.11},
      eprint = {https://article.sciencepublishinggroup.com/pdf/10.11648.j.ijsspe.20160103.11},
      abstract = {This study investigated the impact of task difficulty level and time-pressure on the morning-evening changes in psychomotor performance and perceived difficulty to it among 9–10 years-old boys. Twelve healthy right-handed boys (age = 9.8 ± 0.5 years, height = 144 ± 6.2 cm and body mass = 32.7 ± 3.4 kg) volunteered to take part in the study. They were asked to throw darts to a target from a short (2m, SD) and long (2.37m, LD) distances, either in free (no time limitation, NC) or time-pressure (TPC) conditions, on nonconsecutive days and in a counter-balanced randomized order. Mean scores, missed darts and variability of scores were recorded and analyzed using a three-way ANOVA with repeated measures. Intra-aural temperature and perceived difficulty were recorded too. The results showed higher performance in the afternoon than the in the morning, with higher mean scores around the time of maximum oral temperature (p<0.001). The number of missed darts and variability of scores were lower at 17:00 h in comparison with 07:00 h (p<0.05). Perceived difficulty decreased significantly with time-of-day, with greater values at 07:00 h than at 17:00 h (p<0.05). Psychomotor performance was better in the afternoon than the morning. It seems that, in the early morning, children are less sensitive to the increased level of difficulty when under time-pressure than when throwing a greater distance from the target.},
     year = {2017}
    }
    

    Copy | Download

  • TY  - JOUR
    T1  - Effect of Difficulty Level and Time-Pressure on the Morning-Evening Differences in Accuracy and Consistency of Throwing Darts Among 9-10 Year-Old Boys
    AU  - Yousri Elghoul
    AU  - Mohamed Frikha
    AU  - Nessrine Chaâri
    AU  - Karim Chamari
    AU  - Nizar Souissi
    Y1  - 2017/01/06
    PY  - 2017
    N1  - https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ijsspe.20160103.11
    DO  - 10.11648/j.ijsspe.20160103.11
    T2  - International Journal of Sports Science and Physical Education
    JF  - International Journal of Sports Science and Physical Education
    JO  - International Journal of Sports Science and Physical Education
    SP  - 28
    EP  - 34
    PB  - Science Publishing Group
    SN  - 2575-1611
    UR  - https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ijsspe.20160103.11
    AB  - This study investigated the impact of task difficulty level and time-pressure on the morning-evening changes in psychomotor performance and perceived difficulty to it among 9–10 years-old boys. Twelve healthy right-handed boys (age = 9.8 ± 0.5 years, height = 144 ± 6.2 cm and body mass = 32.7 ± 3.4 kg) volunteered to take part in the study. They were asked to throw darts to a target from a short (2m, SD) and long (2.37m, LD) distances, either in free (no time limitation, NC) or time-pressure (TPC) conditions, on nonconsecutive days and in a counter-balanced randomized order. Mean scores, missed darts and variability of scores were recorded and analyzed using a three-way ANOVA with repeated measures. Intra-aural temperature and perceived difficulty were recorded too. The results showed higher performance in the afternoon than the in the morning, with higher mean scores around the time of maximum oral temperature (p<0.001). The number of missed darts and variability of scores were lower at 17:00 h in comparison with 07:00 h (p<0.05). Perceived difficulty decreased significantly with time-of-day, with greater values at 07:00 h than at 17:00 h (p<0.05). Psychomotor performance was better in the afternoon than the morning. It seems that, in the early morning, children are less sensitive to the increased level of difficulty when under time-pressure than when throwing a greater distance from the target.
    VL  - 1
    IS  - 3
    ER  - 

    Copy | Download

Author Information
  • High Institute of Sport and Physical Education, Sfax University, Sfax, Tunisia

  • King Faisal University, Department of Physical Education, Al Hufūf, KSA

  • Aspetar - Qatar Orthopaedic and Sports Medicine Hospital Doha, Doha, Qatar

  • Research Laboratory ‘‘Sports Performance Optimization’’ National Center of Medicine and Science in Sports (CNMSS), Tunis, Tunisia

  • Sections