| Peer-Reviewed

Photodynamic Therapy for the Diagnosis and Treatment of Cancer

Received: 5 July 2022     Accepted: 20 July 2022     Published: 4 August 2022
Views:       Downloads:
Abstract

Cancer is the second leading cause of death worldwide. The International Agency for Research on Cancer global report of 2020 estimated 19.3 million new cancer cases and almost 10.0 million cancer deaths. The global cancer burden is expected to be 28.4 million cases in 2040, a 47% rise from 2020. Photodynamic therapy (PDT) relies on the presence of oxygen, light at a specific wavelength, and photosensitizers. Among these components, photosensitizers are the primary focus of intensive research for optimization. So far, PDT has been used to treat brain, head, neck, pancreas, breast, prostate, skin, colorectal, oral, lung, bronchial, and liver cancers. The combination of PDT with standard cancer treatment options is proving more effective against most resistant cancers. Photodynamic diagnosis is superior to white light cystoscopy in detecting tumors. Based on the recent literature review, it is clear that the effective use of PDT for cancer treatment will require the modulation of other metabolic pathways to combat drug resistance and improve treatment outcomes. These modulations can include cell cycle inhibition, inhibition of DNA repair mechanisms, inhibition of cell adhesion, and many other molecular mechanisms that can enhance the pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics activities of PS and reduce tumor resistance to treatment. This review looks at the principles of PDT, its application to cancer diagnosis and treatment, and its limitations. PDT has enormous potential for cancer diagnosis and treatment in developing countries because of its low cost and wide range of applications. Analysis of recent research on PDT shows that PDT has massive potential for cancer treatment and should not always be used as the last resort after all other cancer treatment options have failed.

Published in Advances in Biochemistry (Volume 10, Issue 3)
DOI 10.11648/j.ab.20221003.11
Page(s) 81-93
Creative Commons

This is an Open Access article, distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, provided the original work is properly cited.

Copyright

Copyright © The Author(s), 2022. Published by Science Publishing Group

Keywords

Photosensitizers, Photodynamic Therapy, Reactive Oxygen Radicals, Photodynamic Diagnosis, Cancer

References
[1] Pastorino, F. and Brignole, C. (2022). Editorial of the Special Issue “Targeted Therapies for Cancer” Biomedicines 10, no. 5: 1114. https://doi.org/10.3390/biomedicines10051114
[2] Sung, H., Ferlay, J., Siegel, R. L., Laversanne, M., Soerjomataram, I., Jemal, A., and Bray, F. (2021). Global Cancer Statistics 2020: GLOBOCAN Estimates of Incidence and Mortality Worldwide for 36 Cancers in 185 Countries. CA: a cancer journal for clinicians, 71 (3), 209–249. https://doi.org/10.3322/caac.21660
[3] Hernandez, I., Bott, S. W., Patel, A. S., Wolf, C. G., Hospodar, A. R., Sampathkumar, S., and Shrank, W. H. (2018). Pricing of monoclonal antibody therapies: higher if used for cancer? The American journal of managed care, 24 (2), 109–112.
[4] Khan, M., and Spicer, J. (2019). The Evolving Landscape of Cancer Therapeutics. Handbook of experimental pharmacology, 260, 43–79. https://doi.org/10.1007/164_2019_312
[5] Malik, D., Mahendiratta, S., Kaur, H., and Medhi, B. (2021). Futuristic approach to cancer treatment. Gene, 805, 145906. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gene.2021.145906
[6] Liu, J., Pandya, P., and Afshar, S. (2021). Therapeutic Advances in Oncology. International journal of molecular sciences, 22 (4), 2008. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms22042008
[7] Gunaydin, G., Gedik, M. E., and Ayan, S. (2021). Photodynamic Therapy for the Treatment and Diagnosis of Cancer-A Review of the Current Clinical Status. Frontiers in chemistry, 9, 686303. https://doi.org/10.3389/fchem.2021.686303
[8] Shi, X., Zhang, C. Y., Gao, J., and Wang, Z. (2019). Recent advances in photodynamic therapy for cancer and infectious diseases. Wiley interdisciplinary reviews. Nanomedicine and nanobiotechnology, 11 (5), e1560. https://doi.org/10.1002/wnan.1560
[9] Kharkwal, G. B., Sharma, S. K., Huang, Y. Y., Dai, T., and Hamblin, M. R. (2011). Photodynamic therapy for infections: clinical applications. Lasers in surgery and medicine, 43 (7), 755–767. https://doi.org/10.1002/lsm.21080
[10] Lan, M., Zhao, S., Liu, W., Lee, C. S., Zhang, W., and Wang, P. (2019). Photosensitizers for Photodynamic Therapy. Advanced healthcare materials, 8 (13), e1900132. https://doi.org/10.1002/adhm.201900132
[11] Algorri, J. F., Ochoa, M., Roldán-Varona, P., Rodríguez-Cobo, L., & López-Higuera, J. M. (2021). Photodynamic Therapy: A Compendium of Latest Reviews. Cancers, 13 (17), 4447. https://doi.org/10.3390/cancers13174447
[12] Yanovsky, R. L., Bartenstein, D. W., Rogers, G. S., Isakoff, S. J., and Chen, S. T. (2019). Photodynamic therapy for solid tumors: A review of the literature. Photodermatology, photoimmunology & photomedicine, 35 (5), 295–303. https://doi.org/10.1111/phpp.12489
[13] Abdel-kader, M. H. (2016). CHAPTER 1: The Journey of PDT Throughout History: PDT from Pharos to Present, in Photodynamic Medicine: From Bench to Clinic, pp. 1-21 DOI: 10.1039/9781782626824-00001.
[14] Kato H. (1996). [History of photodynamic therapy--past, present and future]. Gan to kagaku ryoho. Cancer & chemotherapy, 23 (1), 8–15.
[15] Tedesco, A. C., Primo, F. L., & de Jesus, P. D. C. C. (2017). Antimicrobial photodynamic therapy (APDT) action based on nanostructured photosensitizers. In Multifunctional systems for combined delivery, biosensing and diagnostics (pp. 9-29). Elsevier.
[16] Dougherty, T. J., Gomer, C. J., Henderson, B. W., Jori, G., Kessel, D., Korbelik, M., Moan, J., and Peng, Q. (1998). Photodynamic therapy. Journal of the National Cancer Institute, 90 (12), 889–905. https://doi.org/10.1093/jnci/90.12.889
[17] Biel M. (2006). Advances in photodynamic therapy for the treatment of head and neck cancers. Lasers in surgery and medicine, 38 (5), 349–355. https://doi.org/10.1002/lsm.20368
[18] Luketich, J. D., Nguyen, N. T., Weigel, T. L., Keenan, R. J., Ferson, P. F., and Belani, C. P. (1999). Photodynamic therapy for treatment of malignant dysphagia. Surgical laparoscopy, endoscopy and percutaneous techniques, 9 (3), 171–175.
[19] Plekhova, N., Shevchenko, O., Korshunova, O., Stepanyugina, A., Tananaev, I., and Apanasevich, V. (2022). Development of Novel Tetrapyrrole Structure Photosensitizers for Cancer Photodynamic Therapy. Bioengineering (Basel, Switzerland), 9 (2), 82. https://doi.org/10.3390/bioengineering9020082
[20] Kou, J., Dou, D., and Yang, L. (2017). Porphyrin photosensitizers in photodynamic therapy and its applications. Oncotarget, 8 (46), 81591–81603. https://doi.org/10.18632/oncotarget.20189
[21] Mfouo-Tynga, I. S., Dias, L. D., Inada, N. M., and Kurachi, C. (2021). Features of third generation photosensitizers used in anticancer photodynamic therapy: Review. Photodiagnosis and photodynamic therapy, 34, 102091. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pdpdt.2020.102091
[22] Ming, L., Cheng, K., Chen, Y., Yang, R., and Chen, D. (2021). Enhancement of tumor lethality of ROS in photodynamic therapy. Cancer medicine, 10 (1), 257–268. https://doi.org/10.1002/cam4.3592
[23] Dobson, J., de Queiroz, G. F., and Golding, J. P. (2018). Photodynamic therapy and diagnosis: Principles and comparative aspects. Veterinary journal (London, England: 1997), 233, 8–18. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tvjl.2017.11.012
[24] Sun, J., Xing, F., Braun, J., Traub, F., Rommens, P. M., Xiang, Z., and Ritz, U. (2021). Progress of Phototherapy Applications in the Treatment of Bone Cancer. International journal of molecular sciences, 22 (21), 11354. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms222111354
[25] Kessel D. (2022). Photodynamic Therapy: Critical PDT Theory. Photochemistry and photobiology, 10.1111/php.13616. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1111/php.13616
[26] Hetzel, F. W., et al., (2005). AAPM REPORT NO. 88: photodynamic therapy Dosimetry. American Association of Physicists in Medicine.
[27] Ash, C., Dubec, M., Donne, K., and Bashford, T. (2017). Effect of wavelength and beam width on penetration in light-tissue interaction using computational methods. Lasers in medical science, 32 (8), 1909–1918. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10103-017-2317-4
[28] Kim, M. M., and Darafsheh, A. (2020). Light Sources and Dosimetry Techniques for Photodynamic Therapy. Photochemistry and photobiology, 96 (2), 280–294. https://doi.org/10.1111/php.13219
[29] Lee, C. N., Hsu, R., Chen, H., and Wong, T. W. (2020). Daylight Photodynamic Therapy: An Update. Molecules (Basel, Switzerland), 25 (21), 5195. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules25215195
[30] Li, B., and Lin, L. (2022). Internal light source for deep photodynamic therapy. Light, science & applications, 11 (1), 85. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41377-022-00780-1
[31] Beigzadeh, A. M., Rashidian Vaziri, M. R., Ziaie, F., & Sharif, S. (2020). A New Optical Method for Online Monitoring of the Light Dose and Dose Profile in Photodynamic Therapy. Lasers in surgery and medicine, 52 (7), 659–670. https://doi.org/10.1002/lsm.23193
[32] Hall Morales, R. D., Sun, H., Hong Ong, Y., & Zhu, T. C. (2022). Validation of multispectral singlet oxygen luminescence dosimetry (MSOLD) for photofrin-mediated photodynamic therapy. Proceedings of SPIE--the International Society for Optical Engineering, 11940, 119400J. https://doi.org/10.1117/12.2609937
[33] Zeng, H., Korbelik, M., McLean, D. I., MacAulay, C., & Lui, H. (2002). Monitoring photoproduct formation and photobleaching by fluorescence spectroscopy has the potential to improve PDT dosimetry with a verteporfin-like photosensitizer. Photochemistry and photobiology, 75 (4), 398–405. https://doi.org/10.1562/0031-8655 (2002)075<0398:mpfapb>2.0.co;2
[34] Zhao, Y., Moritz, T., Hinds, M. F., Gunn, J. R., Shell, J. R., Pogue, B. W., & Davis, S. J. (2021). High optical-throughput spectroscopic singlet oxygen and photosensitizer luminescence dosimeter for monitoring of photodynamic therapy. Journal of biophotonics, 14 (11), e202100088. https://doi.org/10.1002/jbio.202100088#
[35] Hananya, N., Green, O., Blau, R., Satchi-Fainaro, R., & Shabat, D. (2017). A highly efficient chemiluminescence probe for the detection of singlet oxygen in living cells. Angewandte Chemie International Edition, 56 (39), 11793-11796.
[36] Huynh, G. T., Kesarwani, V., Walker, J. A., Frith, J. E., Meagher, L., & Corrie, S. R. (2021). Review: Nanomaterials for Reactive Oxygen Species Detection and Monitoring in Biological Environments. Frontiers in chemistry, 9, 728717. https://doi.org/10.3389/fchem.2021.728717
[37] Raizada, K., & Naik, M. (2021). Photodynamic Therapy For The Eye. In StatPearls. StatPearls Publishing. Sai, D. L., Lee, J., Nguyen, D. L., & Kim, Y. P. (2021). Tailoring photosensitive ROS for advanced photodynamic therapy. Experimental & molecular medicine, 53 (4), 495–504. https://doi.org/10.1038/s12276-021-00599-7
[38] Dougherty, T. J., Kaufman, J. E., Goldfarb, A., Weishaupt, K. R., Boyle, D., & Mittleman, A. (1978). Photoradiation therapy for the treatment of malignant tumors. Cancer research, 38 (8), 2628-2635.
[39] Park, W., Cho, S., Han, J., Shin, H., Na, K., Lee, B., & Kim, D. H. (2017). Advanced smart-photosensitizers for more effective cancer treatment. Biomaterials science, 6 (1), 79–90. https://doi.org/10.1039/c7bm00872d
[40] Ormond, A. B., & Freeman, H. S. (2013). Dye sensitizers for photodynamic therapy. Materials, 6 (3), 817-840.
[41] Martins, W. K., Belotto, R., Silva, M. N., Grasso, D., Suriani, M. D., Lavor, T. S.,... & Tsubone, T. M. (2021). Autophagy regulation and photodynamic therapy: insights to improve outcomes of cancer treatment. Frontiers in Oncology, 3121.
[42] Shirasu, N., Nam, S. O., & Kuroki, M. (2013). Tumor-targeted photodynamic therapy. Anticancer research, 33 (7), 2823–2831.
[43] Simelane, N. W. N. & Abrahamse, H. (2021). Nanoparticle-Mediated Delivery Systems in Photodynamic Therapy of Colorectal Cancer. International journal of molecular sciences, 22 (22), 12405. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms222212405
[44] Nagy, J. A., Chang, S. H., Shih, S. C., Dvorak, A. M., & Dvorak, H. F. (2010). Heterogeneity of the tumor vasculature. Seminars in thrombosis and hemostasis, 36 (3), 321–331. https://doi.org/10.1055/s-0030-1253454
[45] Nia, H. T., Munn, L. L., & Jain, R. K. (2020). Physical traits of cancer. Science, 370 (6516), eaaz0868.
[46] Maas, A. L., Carter, S. L., Wileyto, E. P., Miller, J., Yuan, M., Yu, G., Durham, A. C., & Busch, T. M. (2012). Tumor vascular microenvironment determines responsiveness to photodynamic therapy. Cancer research, 72 (8), 2079–2088. https://doi.org/10.1158/0008-5472.CAN-11-3744
[47] Deken, M. M., Kijanka, M. M., Beltrán Hernández, I., Slooter, M. D., de Bruijn, H. S., van Diest, P. J., van Bergen En Henegouwen, P., Lowik, C., Robinson, D. J., Vahrmeijer, A. L., & Oliveira, S. (2020). Nanobody-targeted photodynamic therapy induces significant tumor regression of trastuzumab-resistant HER2-positive breast cancer, after a single treatment session. Journal of controlled release: official journal of the Controlled Release Society, 323, 269–281. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jconrel.2020.04.030
[48] Li, L., Zhang, D., Liu, B., Lv, D., Zhai, J., Guan, X., Yi, Z., & Ma, F. (2021). Antibody-drug conjugates in HER2-positive breast cancer. Chinese medical journal, 135 (3), 261–267. https://doi.org/10.1097/CM9.0000000000001932
[49] Li, Y., Huang, K., Fan, H., Wu, Z., Lu, L., Chen, M., Li, F., Su, J., Zhang, M., & Zhao, S. (2021). Photodynamic therapy combined with simple surgery is effective as the palliative care for a patient with multiple squamous cell carcinomas. Photodermatology, photoimmunology & photomedicine, 37 (1), 85–87. https://doi.org/10.1111/phpp.12602
[50] Francis, A. P., & Jayakrishnan, A. (2019). Conjugating doxorubicin to polymannose: a new strategy for target specific delivery to lung cancer cells. Journal of biomaterials science. Polymer edition, 30 (16), 1471–1488. https://doi.org/10.1080/09205063.2019.1646475
[51] Talukdar, S., Emdad, L., Das, S. K., & Fisher, P. B. (2020). EGFR: An essential receptor tyrosine kinase-regulator of cancer stem cells. Advances in cancer research, 147, 161–188. https://doi.org/10.1016/bs.acr.2020.04.003
[52] Elbaz, M., Ahirwar, D., Ravi, J., Nasser, M. W., & Ganju, R. K. (2017). Novel role of cannabinoid receptor 2 in inhibiting EGF/EGFR and IGF-I/IGF-IR pathways in breast cancer. Oncotarget, 8 (18), 29668–29678. https://doi.org/10.18632/oncotarget.9408
[53] Nompumelelo Simelane, N. W., Kruger, C. A., & Abrahamse, H. (2020). Photodynamic diagnosis and photodynamic therapy of colorectal cancer in vitro and in vivo. RSC advances, 10 (68), 41560–41576. https://doi.org/10.1039/d0ra08617g
[54] Ireneusz Lipiński, M., Różański, W., & Markowski, M. P. (2015). Photodynamic diagnosis - current tool in diagnosis of carcinoma in situ of the urinary bladder. Contemporary oncology (Poznan, Poland), 19 (4), 341–342. https://doi.org/10.5114/wo.2015.54391
[55] Watanabe, T., Nishio, Y., Yamamoto, Y., Shimizu, T., Li, X. K., Okita, H., & Kuroda, T. (2022). Photodynamic therapy with 5-aminolevulinic acid: A new diagnostic, therapeutic, and surgical aid for neuroblastoma. Journal of pediatric surgery. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpedsurg.2022.02.028
[56] Suchorska, B., Weller, M., Tabatabai, G., Senft, C., Hau, P., Sabel, M. C.,... & Wirsching, H. G. (2016). Complete resection of contrast-enhancing tumor volume is associated with improved survival in recurrent glioblastoma—results from the DIRECTOR trial. Neuro-oncology, 18 (4), 549-556.
[57] Hagimoto, H., Makita, N., Mine, Y., Kokubun, H., Murata, S., Abe, Y., Kubota, M., Tsutsumi, N., Yamasaki, T., & Kawakita, M. (2021). Comparison between 5-aminolevulinic acid photodynamic diagnosis and narrow-band imaging for bladder cancer detection. BMC urology, 21 (1), 180. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12894-021-00946-w
[58] Bochynek, K., Aebisher, D., Gasiorek, M., Cieślar, G., & Kawczyk-Krupka, A. (2020). Evaluation of autofluorescence and photodynamic diagnosis in assessment of bladder lesions. Photodiagnosis and photodynamic therapy, 30, 101719. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pdpdt.2020.101719
[59] Suchorska, W. M., & Lach, M. S. (2016). The role of exosomes in tumor progression and metastasis. Oncology reports, 35 (3), 1237-1244.
[60] Moriya, T., Hashimoto, M., Matsushita, H., Masuyama, S., Yoshida, R., Okada, R.,... & Tomura, M. (2022). Near-infrared photoimmunotherapy induced tumor cell death enhances tumor dendritic cell migration. Cancer Immunology, Immunotherapy, 1-8.
[61] Fukushima, H., Turkbey, B., Pinto, P. A., Furusawa, A., Choyke, P. L., & Kobayashi, H. (2022). Near-Infrared Photoimmunotherapy (NIR-PIT) in Urologic Cancers. Cancers, 14 (12), 2996.
[62] Gupta, S. K., Singh, P., Ali, V., & Verma, M. (2020). Role of membrane-embedded drug efflux ABC transporters in the cancer chemotherapy. Oncology reviews, 14 (2), 448. https://doi.org/10.4081/oncol.2020.448
[63] Alfarouk, K. O., Stock, C. M., Taylor, S., Walsh, M., Muddathir, A. K., Verduzco, D., Bashir, A. H., Mohammed, O. Y., Elhassan, G. O., Harguindey, S., Reshkin, S. J., Ibrahim, M. E., & Rauch, C. (2015). Resistance to cancer chemotherapy: failure in drug response from ADME to P-gp. Cancer cell international, 15, 71. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12935-015-0221-1
[64] Pan, S. T., Li, Z. L., He, Z. X., Qiu, J. X., & Zhou, S. F. (2016). Molecular mechanisms for tumour resistance to chemotherapy. Clinical and Experimental Pharmacology and Physiology, 43 (8), 723-737.
[65] Chen, Y., Gao, Y., Li, Y., Wang, K., & Zhu, J. (2019). Synergistic chemo-photodynamic therapy mediated by light-activated ROS-degradable nanocarriers. Journal of Materials Chemistry B, 7 (3), 460-468.
[66] Lee, H., Han, J., Shin, H., Han, H., Na, K., & Kim, H. (2018). Combination of chemotherapy and photodynamic therapy for cancer treatment with sonoporation effects. Journal of controlled release: official journal of the Controlled Release Society, 283, 190–199. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jconrel.2018.06.008
[67] Ma, C. H., Ma, H. H., Deng, X. B., Yu, R., Song, K. W., Wei, K. K., Wang, C. J., Li, H. X., & Chen, H. (2022). Photodynamic Therapy in Combination with Chemotherapy, Targeted, and Immunotherapy As a Successful Therapeutic Approach for Advanced Gastric Adenocarcinoma: A Case Report and Literature Review. Photobiomodulation, photomedicine, and laser surgery, 40 (5), 308–314. https://doi.org/10.1089/photob.2021.0167
[68] Flont, M., Jastrzębska, E., & Brzózka, Z. (2020). Synergistic effect of the combination therapy on ovarian cancer cells under microfluidic conditions. Analytica chimica acta, 1100, 138–148. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aca.2019.11.047
[69] Li, RT., Zhu, YD., Li, WY. et al. (2022). Synergistic photothermal-photodynamic-chemotherapy toward breast cancer based on a liposome-coated core–shell AuNS@NMOFs nanocomposite encapsulated with gambogic acid. J Nanobiotechnol 20, 212. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12951-022-01427-4
[70] Xu, J., Gao, J. and Wei, Q. (2016). Combination of Photodynamic Therapy with Radiotherapy for Cancer Treatment, Journal of Nanomaterials, vol. 2016, Article ID 8507924, 1-7. https://doi.org/10.1155/2016/8507924
[71] Freitag, L., Ernst, A., Thomas, M., Prenzel, R., Wahlers, B., & Macha, H. N. (2004). Sequential photodynamic therapy (PDT) and high dose brachytherapy for endobronchial tumour control in patients with limited bronchogenic carcinoma. Thorax, 59 (9), 790-793.
[72] Kusuzaki, K., Murata, H., Matsubara, T., Miyazaki, S., Okamura, A., Seto, M.,... & Uchida, A. (2005). Clinical trial of photodynamic therapy using acridine orange with/without low dose radiation as new limb salvage modality in musculoskeletal sarcomas. Anticancer research, 25 (2B), 1225-1235.
[73] He, J., Yang, L., Yi, W., Fan, W., Wen, Y., Miao, X., & Xiong, L. (2017). Combination of Fluorescence-Guided Surgery With Photodynamic Therapy for the Treatment of Cancer. Molecular imaging, 16, 1536012117722911. https://doi.org/10.1177/1536012117722911
[74] Cui, X., Zhu, J., Yao, X., Zhu, W., Xu, P., & Wu, X. (2020). Photodynamic therapy combined with dermatosurgical approach for Perifolliculitis Capitis Abscedens et Suffodiens. Photodiagnosis and photodynamic therapy, 30, 101767. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pdpdt.2020.101767
[75] Huang, X. W., Jiang, L. F., Wang, M. L., Dai, S. Q., Li, J. P., Zeng, K., & Li, L. (2020). Photodynamic therapy combined with surgical management of extensive anogenital condylomatosis in a patient with systemic lupus erythematosus. Photodiagnosis and photodynamic therapy, 31, 101881. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pdpdt.2020.101881
[76] Vedula, S., & Zeitouni, N. C. (2022). A review of photodynamic therapy as a prevention modality for actinic keratoses and non-melanoma skin cancers in immunocompetent patients and immunosuppressed organ transplant recipients. Int Clin Img and Med Rew, 1 (1), 1037.
[77] Shi, L., Wang, H., Chen, K., Yan, J., Yu, B., Wang, S., Yin, R., Nong, X., Zou, X., Chen, Z., Li, C., Chen, L., Zhang, C., Zhang, F., Zheng, H., Zheng, M., Tu, P., Xu, J., Tao, J., Kang, X., … Wang, X. (2021). Chinese guidelines on the clinical application of 5-aminolevulinic acid-based photodynamic therapy in dermatology (2021 edition). Photodiagnosis and photodynamic therapy, 35, 102340. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pdpdt.2021.102340
[78] Yano, T., & Wang, K. K. (2020). Photodynamic Therapy for Gastrointestinal Cancer. Photochemistry and photobiology, 96 (3), 517–523. https://doi.org/10.1111/php.13206
[79] Teng, C. W., Amirshaghaghi, A., Cho, S. S., Cai, S. S., De Ravin, E., Singh, Y., Miller, J., S heikh, S., Delikatny, E., Cheng, Z., Busch, T. M., Dorsey, J. F., Singhal, S., Tsourkas, A., & Lee, J. (2020). Combined fluorescence-guided surgery and photodynamic therapy for glioblastoma multiforme using cyanine and chlorin nanocluster. Journal of neuro-oncology, 149 (2), 243–252. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11060-020-03618-1
[80] Kniese, C. M., & Musani, A. I. (2020). Bronchoscopic treatment of inoperable nonsmall cell lung cancer. European respiratory review: an official journal of the European Respiratory Society, 29 (158), 200035. https://doi.org/10.1183/16000617.0035-2020
[81] Allison, R. R., & Bansal, S. (2022). Photodynamic therapy for peripheral lung cancer. Photodiagnosis and photodynamic therapy, 38, 102825. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pdpdt.2022.102825
[82] Matoba, Y., Banno, K., Kisu, I., & Aoki, D. (2018). Clinical application of photodynamic diagnosis and photodynamic therapy for gynecologic malignant diseases: A review. Photodiagnosis and photodynamic therapy, 24, 52–57. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pdpdt.2018.08.014
[83] Kubrak, T., Karakuła, M., Czop, M., Kawczyk-Krupka, A., & Aebisher, D. (2022). Advances in Management of Bladder Cancer-The Role of Photodynamic Therapy. Molecules (Basel, Switzerland), 27 (3), 731. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules27030731
[84] Borgia, F., Giuffrida, R., Caradonna, E., Vaccaro, M., Guarneri, F., & Cannavò, S. P. (2018). Early and Late Onset Side Effects of Photodynamic Therapy. Biomedicines, 6 (1), 12. https://doi.org/10.3390/biomedicines6010012
[85] McCann, P., Stafinski, T., Wong, C., & Menon, D. (2011). The safety and effectiveness of endoscopic and non-endoscopic approaches to the management of early esophageal cancer: a systematic review. Cancer treatment reviews, 37 (1), 11–62. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ctrv.2010.04.006
[86] Berg K. (2015). Resistance mechanisms in photodynamic therapy. Photochemical & photobiological sciences: Official journal of the European Photochemistry Association and the European Society for Photobiology, 14 (8), 1376–1377. https://doi.org/10.1039/c5pp90026c
[87] Casas, A., Di Venosa, G., Hasan, T., & Al Batlle (2011). Mechanisms of resistance to photodynamic therapy. Current medicinal chemistry, 18 (16), 2486–2515. https://doi.org/10.2174/092986711795843272
[88] Mossakowska, B. J., Shahmoradi Ghahe, S., Cysewski, D., Fabisiewicz, A., Tudek, B., & Siedlecki, J. A. (2022). Mechanisms of Resistance to Photodynamic Therapy (PDT) in Vulvar Cancer. International journal of molecular sciences, 23 (8), 4117. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms23084117
[89] Lucena, S. R., Zamarrón, A., Carrasco, E., Marigil, M. A., Mascaraque, M., Fernández-Guarino, M., Gilaberte, Y., González, S., & Juarranz, A. (2019). Characterisation of resistance mechanisms developed by basal cell carcinoma cells in response to repeated cycles of Photodynamic Therapy. Scientific reports, 9 (1), 4835. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-019-41313-y
[90] Zhang, Q., & Li, L. (2018). Photodynamic combinational therapy in cancer treatment. Journal of B.U.ON.: Official journal of the Balkan Union of Oncology, 23 (3), 561–567.
Cite This Article
  • APA Style

    Rodrick Symon Katete, Given Kalonga, Magdah Ganashi, Ned Silavwe, Richard Mwenya. (2022). Photodynamic Therapy for the Diagnosis and Treatment of Cancer. Advances in Biochemistry, 10(3), 81-93. https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ab.20221003.11

    Copy | Download

    ACS Style

    Rodrick Symon Katete; Given Kalonga; Magdah Ganashi; Ned Silavwe; Richard Mwenya. Photodynamic Therapy for the Diagnosis and Treatment of Cancer. Adv. Biochem. 2022, 10(3), 81-93. doi: 10.11648/j.ab.20221003.11

    Copy | Download

    AMA Style

    Rodrick Symon Katete, Given Kalonga, Magdah Ganashi, Ned Silavwe, Richard Mwenya. Photodynamic Therapy for the Diagnosis and Treatment of Cancer. Adv Biochem. 2022;10(3):81-93. doi: 10.11648/j.ab.20221003.11

    Copy | Download

  • @article{10.11648/j.ab.20221003.11,
      author = {Rodrick Symon Katete and Given Kalonga and Magdah Ganashi and Ned Silavwe and Richard Mwenya},
      title = {Photodynamic Therapy for the Diagnosis and Treatment of Cancer},
      journal = {Advances in Biochemistry},
      volume = {10},
      number = {3},
      pages = {81-93},
      doi = {10.11648/j.ab.20221003.11},
      url = {https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ab.20221003.11},
      eprint = {https://article.sciencepublishinggroup.com/pdf/10.11648.j.ab.20221003.11},
      abstract = {Cancer is the second leading cause of death worldwide. The International Agency for Research on Cancer global report of 2020 estimated 19.3 million new cancer cases and almost 10.0 million cancer deaths. The global cancer burden is expected to be 28.4 million cases in 2040, a 47% rise from 2020. Photodynamic therapy (PDT) relies on the presence of oxygen, light at a specific wavelength, and photosensitizers. Among these components, photosensitizers are the primary focus of intensive research for optimization. So far, PDT has been used to treat brain, head, neck, pancreas, breast, prostate, skin, colorectal, oral, lung, bronchial, and liver cancers. The combination of PDT with standard cancer treatment options is proving more effective against most resistant cancers. Photodynamic diagnosis is superior to white light cystoscopy in detecting tumors. Based on the recent literature review, it is clear that the effective use of PDT for cancer treatment will require the modulation of other metabolic pathways to combat drug resistance and improve treatment outcomes. These modulations can include cell cycle inhibition, inhibition of DNA repair mechanisms, inhibition of cell adhesion, and many other molecular mechanisms that can enhance the pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics activities of PS and reduce tumor resistance to treatment. This review looks at the principles of PDT, its application to cancer diagnosis and treatment, and its limitations. PDT has enormous potential for cancer diagnosis and treatment in developing countries because of its low cost and wide range of applications. Analysis of recent research on PDT shows that PDT has massive potential for cancer treatment and should not always be used as the last resort after all other cancer treatment options have failed.},
     year = {2022}
    }
    

    Copy | Download

  • TY  - JOUR
    T1  - Photodynamic Therapy for the Diagnosis and Treatment of Cancer
    AU  - Rodrick Symon Katete
    AU  - Given Kalonga
    AU  - Magdah Ganashi
    AU  - Ned Silavwe
    AU  - Richard Mwenya
    Y1  - 2022/08/04
    PY  - 2022
    N1  - https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ab.20221003.11
    DO  - 10.11648/j.ab.20221003.11
    T2  - Advances in Biochemistry
    JF  - Advances in Biochemistry
    JO  - Advances in Biochemistry
    SP  - 81
    EP  - 93
    PB  - Science Publishing Group
    SN  - 2329-0862
    UR  - https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ab.20221003.11
    AB  - Cancer is the second leading cause of death worldwide. The International Agency for Research on Cancer global report of 2020 estimated 19.3 million new cancer cases and almost 10.0 million cancer deaths. The global cancer burden is expected to be 28.4 million cases in 2040, a 47% rise from 2020. Photodynamic therapy (PDT) relies on the presence of oxygen, light at a specific wavelength, and photosensitizers. Among these components, photosensitizers are the primary focus of intensive research for optimization. So far, PDT has been used to treat brain, head, neck, pancreas, breast, prostate, skin, colorectal, oral, lung, bronchial, and liver cancers. The combination of PDT with standard cancer treatment options is proving more effective against most resistant cancers. Photodynamic diagnosis is superior to white light cystoscopy in detecting tumors. Based on the recent literature review, it is clear that the effective use of PDT for cancer treatment will require the modulation of other metabolic pathways to combat drug resistance and improve treatment outcomes. These modulations can include cell cycle inhibition, inhibition of DNA repair mechanisms, inhibition of cell adhesion, and many other molecular mechanisms that can enhance the pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics activities of PS and reduce tumor resistance to treatment. This review looks at the principles of PDT, its application to cancer diagnosis and treatment, and its limitations. PDT has enormous potential for cancer diagnosis and treatment in developing countries because of its low cost and wide range of applications. Analysis of recent research on PDT shows that PDT has massive potential for cancer treatment and should not always be used as the last resort after all other cancer treatment options have failed.
    VL  - 10
    IS  - 3
    ER  - 

    Copy | Download

Author Information
  • Department of Biological Sciences, School of Mathematics and Natural Science, Mukuba University, Kitwe, Zambia

  • Department of Physics, School of Mathematics and Natural Science, Copperbelt University, Kitwe, Zambia

  • Biology Department, Faculty of Science, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia

  • Department of Chemistry, School of Mathematics and Natural Science, Mukuba University, Kitwe, Zambia

  • Institute of Basic and Biomedical Sciences, Levy Mwanawasa Medical University, Lusaka, Zambia

  • Sections