| Peer-Reviewed

The Effect of Perceived Discrimination on Gender Role Conflict Among Men Engaged in A-typical Occupations: The Moderating Role of Work Autonomy

Received: 2 April 2019    Accepted: 16 May 2019    Published: 26 June 2019
Views:       Downloads:
Abstract

Empirical research suggests that gendered job-segregation have effects on men in the workplace consequent upon bias evaluations stemming from social norms regarding acceptable gender roles. These biases are capable of inducing workplace stressors that may affect the psychological well being of men engaged in female-dominated occupations. This study investigates the moderating role of work autonomy in the relationship between perceived gender discrimination and gender role conflict for men in atypical occupations. A cross-sectional survey method was used to collect data from a sample of 150 men in the occupations of nursing, librarian, and primary school teaching, and a hierarchical regression test analyzed hypotheses. Regression analysis demonstrated that perceived discrimination and work autonomy were significant predictors of gender role conflict (β = .60, p < .001), and β = -.62, p < .001, respectively). A moderated regression analysis was also conducted to test the assumption that job autonomy moderates the relationship between perceiving a discriminatory work environment and workers’ gender role conflict. The analysis indicated that 79% of the variation in the dependent variable could be explained by the main effects and the interaction effects, F (4, 145) =140.58, p < .05). This interaction effect, although significant, accounted for a minimal incremental effect above and beyond the direct effects of perceived gender discrimination and work autonomy (ΔR2 = .008, F (1, 145) = 5.48, p < .05). Research implications and suggestions for future research are discussed.

Published in Social Sciences (Volume 8, Issue 3)
DOI 10.11648/j.ss.20190803.17
Page(s) 117-124
Creative Commons

This is an Open Access article, distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, provided the original work is properly cited.

Copyright

Copyright © The Author(s), 2024. Published by Science Publishing Group

Keywords

Gender, Stereotypes, Masculinity, Autonomy, Discrimination

References
[1] Eagly, A. H., and Wood, W. nature-nurture debates 25 years of challenges in understanding the psychology of gender. 2013; Perspect. Psychol. Sci. 8, 340–357. https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691613484767.
[2] Levanon, A., & Grusky, D. The persistence of extreme gender segregation in the twenty-first century American. 2016; American Journal of Sociology, 122 (2), 573–619.
[3] Fiske, S. T., Gilbert, D. T., & Lindzey, G. Handbook of social psychology, 2010; (Vol. 2). John Wiley & Sons: New York.
[4] Kanter, R. M. Men, and women of the corporation (2nd ed.). 1993; New York, NY: Basic Books.
[5] Vandello, J. A., & Bosson, J. K. Hard won and easily lost: A review and synthesis of theory and research on precarious manhood. 2013; Psychology of Men & Masculinity, 14 (2), 101. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0029826.
[6] Korek, S., Sobiraj, S., Weseler, D., Rigotti, T., & Mohr, G. The gender role self- concept of men in female-dominated occupations: does it depend on how they see their jobs? 2014; Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 44 (4), 241-254. https://doi.org/10.1111/jasp.12235.
[7] Clow, K., Ricciardelli, R., & Bartfay, W. Are you man enough to be a nurse? The impact of ambivalent sexism and role congruity on perceptions of men and women in nursing advertisements. 2015; Sex Roles 72 (7-8), 363-376. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-014-0418-0.
[8] Vandello, J. A., Bosson, J. K., Cohen, D., Burnaford, R., & Weaver, J. Precarious manhood. 2008; Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 95: 1325–1339. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0012453.
[9] Way N., Cressen J., & Bodian S. “It might be nice to be a girl… Then you wouldn’t have to be emotionless”: Boys’ resistance to norms of masculinity during adolescence. 2014; Psychol Men Masc.; 15: 241–252.
[10] Kågesten A., Gibbs S., Blum R. W. Understanding factors that shape gender attitudes in early adolescence globally: A Mixed-Methods systematic review. PLoS One. 2016; 11: e0157805.
[11] Koenig, A. M., & Eagly, A. H. Evidence for the social role theory of stereotype content: observations of groups’ roles shape stereotypes. 2014; J. Pers. Soc. Psychol. 107, 371–392. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0037215.
[12] Schmader, T., & Block, K. Engendering identity: Toward a clearer conceptualization of gender as a social identity. 2015; Sex Roles, https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-015-0536-3.
[13] Piper, P. S., & Collamer, B. E. Male librarians: Men in a feminized profession. 2001; The Journal of Academic Librarianship, 27 (5), 406-411.
[14] Burton, D. A. & Misener, T. A. Are you man enough to be a nurse? Challenging male nurse media portrayals and stereotypes. In C. O’Lynn & R. Tranberger (Eds.) Men in Nursing: History, Challenges, and Opportunities; 2007 (pp 255-269). New York: Springer Publishing.
[15] Pinnegar, S., Dulude, C. L., Bigham, S. & Dulude, C. Teaching as Highlighted by Mothering: A Narrative Inquiry. 2005; Studying Teacher Education, 1 (1): 55–67.
[16] Bolton, S & Muzio, D. The paradoxical processes of feminization in the professions: the case of established, aspiring, and semi-professions. 2008; Work, Employment, and Society, 22: 281-299.
[17] Bakker, A. B., & Bal, M. P. Weekly work engagement and performance: A study among starting teachers. 2010; Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 83 (1), 189–206.
[18] Lupton, B. Explaining men’s entry into female-concentrated occupations: issues of masculinity and social class. 2006; Gend. Work Organ. 13, 103–128. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-0432.2006.00299.x.
[19] Simpson, R. Men in Non-Traditional Occupations: Career Entry, Career Orientation, and Experience of Role Strain. 2005; Gender, Work, and Organization; 12 (4): 363-380.
[20] Young, J. L., & James, E. H. Token majority: the work attitudes of male flight attendants. 2010; Sex Roles 45, 299–319. https://doi.org/10.1023/A: 1014305530335.
[21] Wolfram, H. J., Mohr, G., & Borchert, J. Gender role self-concept, gender role conflict, and well-being in male primary school teachers. 2009; Sex Roles 60, 114–127. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-008-9493-4.
[22] Wallen, A. S., Mor, S., & Devine, B. A. It’s about respect: gender professional identity integration affects male nurses’ job attitudes. 2014; Psychol. Men Masc. 15, 305–312. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0033714.
[23] O’Neil, J. M. Men’s gender role conflict: Psychological costs, consequences, and an agenda for change. 2015; Washington, D. C.: American Psychological Association.
[24] Wong, Y. J., Ho, M. R., Wang, S. Y., & Miller, I. S. Meta-analyses of the relationship between conformity to masculine norms and mental health-related outcomes. 2017; Journal of Counseling Psychology, 64, 80–93. http://doi.org/10.1037/cou0000176.
[25] O’Neil, J. M. (2008). Summarizing 25 years of research on men’s gender role conflict using the gender role conflict scale. The Counseling Psychologist, 36, 358-445.
[26] Fujimoto, T., Shinohara, S., & Oohira, T. 2014. Work-Family Conflict and Depression for Employed Husbands and Wives in Japan: Moderating Roles of Self and Spousal Role Involvement, in (ed.) Family Relationships and Familial Responses to Health Issues (Contemporary Perspectives in Family Research, Volume 8A) Emerald Group Publishing Limited, pp. 135-162.
[27] Beehr, T. A., Bowling, N. A., & Bennett, M. M. Occupational stress and failures of social support: When helping hurts. 2010; Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 15, 45–59. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0018234.
[28] Di Marco, D., López-Cabrera, R., Arenas, A., Giorgi, G., Arcangeli, G., & Mucci, N. Approaching the discriminatory work environment as a stressor: the protective role of job satisfaction on health. 2016; Front. Psychol. 7: 1313. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2016.01313.
[29] Jones, K. P., Arenas, D. F., Nittrouer, C. L., Alonso, N. M., & Lindsey, A. P. Subtle discrimination in the workplace: a vicious cycle. 2017; Ind. Organ. Psychol. 10, 51–76. https://doi.org/10.1017/iop.2016.91.
[30] Booth, A. L. & Leigh, A. Do Employers Discriminate by Gender? A Field Experiment in Female-Dominated Occupations”, 2010; CEPR Discussion Paper No. 7638, January.
[31] Rajacich D, Kane D, Wilson C, & Cameron. If they do call-you nurse, it is always a ‘male nurse’: Experiences of men in the nursing profession. Nursing Forum. 2013; 48 (1): 71-80. https://doi.org/10.1111/nuf.12008.
[32] Cross, S. & Bagihole, B. ‘Girls' jobs for the boys? Men, masculinity, and non-traditional occupations’. 2002; Gender, Work and Organization, 9 (2), 204-26.
[33] Riach, P. & Rich, J. “An Experimental Investigation of Sexual Discrimination in Hiring in the English Labour Market,” 2006; BE Press Advances in Economic Analysis & Policy, 6 (2): 1-22.
[34] Rolfe, H. Where are the men? Gender Segregation in the Childcare and Early Years. 2006; National Institute Economic Review; 195 (1): 103-117. https://doi.org/10.1177/0027950106064038.
[35] Parker, S. K. Beyond motivation: job and work design for development, health, ambidexterity, and more. 2014; Annu. Rev. Psychol. 65, 661–691. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-010213-115208.
[36] Ohly, S., & Fritz, C.Work characteristics, challenge appraisal, creativity, and proactive behavior: A multi-level study. 2009; Journal of Organizational Behavior, 31, 543-565. https://doi.org/10.1002/job.633.
[37] Gaille, D. Direct participation and the quality of work. 2013; Hum. Relat. 66, 453–473. https://doi.org/10.1177/0018726712473035.
[38] Kubicek, B., Paskvan, M., & Bunner, J. (2017). “The bright and dark sides of job autonomy,” in C. Korunka and. Kubicek (Eds.) Job Demands in a Changing World of Work, (Dordrecht: Springer International), 45–63.
[39] Wester, S. R., Vogel, D. L., O'Neil, J. M., & Danforth, L. Development and Evaluation of the Gender Role Conflict Scale-Short Form (GRCS-SF). 2011; Psychology of Men & Masculinity. ttps://doi.org/10.1037/a0025550.
[40] Jagusztyn, N. E. 2010. Perceived Workplace Discrimination as a Mediator of the Relationship between Work Environment and Employee Outcomes: Does Minority Status Matter? Graduate Theses and Dissertations. http://scholarcommons.usf.edu/etd/3657.
[41] Smith, C., Tisak, J., Hahn, S., & Schmieder, R. The measurement of job control. 1997; Journal of Organizational Behavior, 18, 225-237.
[42] Ganster, D. C. Worker control, and well-being: A review of research in the workplace. In Sauter, S. L., Hurrell, J. J. & Cooper, C. L. (Eds.) Job Control and Worker Health, 1989. Chichester, UK: Wiley.
[43] Hofmann, D. A., & Gavin, M. B. Centering decisions in hierarchical linear models: Implications for research in organizations. 1998; Journal of Management, 24 (5), 623–641.
[44] Pallant, J. (2005). SPSS Survival Manual: A step by step guide to data analysis using SPSS for Windows (Version 12). Crows Nest, NSW: Allen & Unwin.
[45] Tabachnick, B. G., & Fidell, L. S. 2007. Using Multivariate Statistics, (5th Edition). Boston: Pearson Education, Inc.
[46] Tabachnick, B. G., & Fidell, L. S. 2013. Using Multivariate Statistics, 6th ed. Boston: Pearson Education, Inc.
[47] Saunders, M., Lewis, P. & Thornhill, A. 2016. Research methods for business students (7th ed.). Harlow, UK: Pearson Education.
[48] Schmitt, M. T., Schmitt, M. T., Branscombe, N. R., & Garcia, A., The consequences of perceived discrimination for psychological well-being: a meta-analytic review. 2014; Psychol. Bull. 140, 921–949. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0035754.
[49] Yang, T., & Park, K., To what extent do sleep quality and duration mediate the effect of perceived discrimination on health? Evidence from Philadelphia. 2015; J. Urban Health 92, 1024–1037. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11524-015-9986-8.
[50] Mota, N. P., Medved, M., Wang, J., Asmundson, G. J. G., Whitney, D., & Sareen, J.: Stress and mental disorders in female military personnel: Comparisons between the sexes in a male-dominated profession. 2012; J. Psychiatr. Res. 46 (2): 159–167. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpsychires.2011.09.014.
[51] Svedberg, P., Bildt, C., Lindelöw, M., & Alexandersson, K.: Self-reported health among employees in relation to sex segregation at work sites. 2009; J. Occup. Health. 51 (3), 223–231.
[52] Milner A, King T, LaMontagne AD, Bentley R, & Kavanagh A. Men’s work, Women’s work, and mental health: A longitudinal investigation of the relationship between the gender composition of occupations and mental health. 2018; Soc Sci Med.; 204: 16-22. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2018.03.020.
[53] Sawyer, P. J., Major, B., Casad, B. J., Townsend, S. S. M., & Mendes, W. B. Discrimination and the stress response: Psychological and physiological consequences of anticipating prejudice in interethnic interactions. 2012; American Journal of Public Health, 102 (5), 1020–1026. https://doi.org /pdf/10.2105/AJPH.2011.300620.
[54] Brown, T. T., Partanen, J., Chuong, L., Villaverde, V., Griffin, A. C., & Mendelson, A., Discrimination hurts the effect of discrimination on the development of chronic pain. 2018; Soc. Sci. Med. 204, 1–8.
[55] Kaiser CR, Vick SB, & Major B. Prejudice expectations moderate preconscious attention to social identity threatening cues. 2006; Psychol Sci.; 17 (4): 332---338.
[56] [Pascoe EA, Smart Richmond L. Perceived discrimination and health: a meta-analytic review. Psychol Bull. 2009; 135 (4): 531---554.
[57] Scrinzi, F. 2010 “Masculinities and the International Division of Care: Migrant Male Domestic Workers in Italy and France,” Men and Masculinities, 13 (1), pp. 44-64. Sector’, National Institute Economic Review 2006; 195, 103, Sage: London https://doi.org/10.1177/1097184X10382880.
[58] Inzlicht, M., and Kang, S. K. Stereotype threat spillover: how coping with threats to social identity affects aggression, eating, decision making, and attention. 2010; J. Pers. Soc. Psychol. 99, 467–481. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0018951.
[59] Inzlicht, M., Tullett, A. M., Legault, L., & Kang, S. K. Lingering effects: stereotype threat hurts more than you think. 2011; Soc. Issues Policy Rev. 5, 227–256. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1751-2409.2011.01031.x.
[60] von Hippel, C., Sekaquaptewa, D., & McFarlane, M. Stereotype threat among women in finance: negative effects on identity, workplace well-being, and recruiting. 2015; Psychol. Women Q. 39, 405–414. https://doi.org/10.1177/0361684315574501
[61] Smith, R. A. Money, benefits, and power: a test of the glass ceiling and glass escalator hypotheses. 2012; Ann. Am. Acad. Pol. Soc. Sci. 639, 149–172. https://doi.org/10.1177/0002716211422038.
[62] Woodhams, C., Lupton, B., & Cowling, M. The presence of ethnic minority and disabled men in feminised work: intersectionality, vertical segregation, and the glass escalator. 2015; Sex Roles 72, 277–293. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-014-0427-z.
[63] Park, R., & Searcy, D. Job autonomy as a predictor of mental well-being: the moderating role of quality-competitive environment. 2012; J. Bus. Psychol. 27, 305–316. https://doi.org /0.1007/s10869-011-9244-3.
[64] Taylor, J., & Westover, J. H. Job satisfaction in the public service: The effects of public service motivation, workplace attributes, and work relations. 2011; Public Management Review, 13, 731-751.
[65] Graves, L. M., & Luciano, M. M. Self-determination at work: Understanding the role of leader-member exchange. 2012; Motivation and Emotion, 37, 518-536.
[66] Hassan, S. Sources of professional employees’ job involvement: An empirical assessment in a government agency. 2014; Review of Public Personnel Administration, 34, 356-378.
[67] Baumeister, R. F., & Alghamdi, N. Resource-based interventions in the workplace: integration, commentary, and recommendations. 2015; J. Occup. Organ. Psychol. 88, 623–629. https://doi.org/10.1111/joop.12130.
[68] van Wingerden, J., & Poell, R. F. Employees’ perceived opportunities to craft and in-role performance: the mediating role of job crafting and work engagement. 2017; Front. Psychol. 8: 1876. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2017. 01876.
Cite This Article
  • APA Style

    Olubukola Abimbola Oke. (2019). The Effect of Perceived Discrimination on Gender Role Conflict Among Men Engaged in A-typical Occupations: The Moderating Role of Work Autonomy. Social Sciences, 8(3), 117-124. https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ss.20190803.17

    Copy | Download

    ACS Style

    Olubukola Abimbola Oke. The Effect of Perceived Discrimination on Gender Role Conflict Among Men Engaged in A-typical Occupations: The Moderating Role of Work Autonomy. Soc. Sci. 2019, 8(3), 117-124. doi: 10.11648/j.ss.20190803.17

    Copy | Download

    AMA Style

    Olubukola Abimbola Oke. The Effect of Perceived Discrimination on Gender Role Conflict Among Men Engaged in A-typical Occupations: The Moderating Role of Work Autonomy. Soc Sci. 2019;8(3):117-124. doi: 10.11648/j.ss.20190803.17

    Copy | Download

  • @article{10.11648/j.ss.20190803.17,
      author = {Olubukola Abimbola Oke},
      title = {The Effect of Perceived Discrimination on Gender Role Conflict Among Men Engaged in A-typical Occupations: The Moderating Role of Work Autonomy},
      journal = {Social Sciences},
      volume = {8},
      number = {3},
      pages = {117-124},
      doi = {10.11648/j.ss.20190803.17},
      url = {https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ss.20190803.17},
      eprint = {https://article.sciencepublishinggroup.com/pdf/10.11648.j.ss.20190803.17},
      abstract = {Empirical research suggests that gendered job-segregation have effects on men in the workplace consequent upon bias evaluations stemming from social norms regarding acceptable gender roles. These biases are capable of inducing workplace stressors that may affect the psychological well being of men engaged in female-dominated occupations. This study investigates the moderating role of work autonomy in the relationship between perceived gender discrimination and gender role conflict for men in atypical occupations. A cross-sectional survey method was used to collect data from a sample of 150 men in the occupations of nursing, librarian, and primary school teaching, and a hierarchical regression test analyzed hypotheses. Regression analysis demonstrated that perceived discrimination and work autonomy were significant predictors of gender role conflict (β = .60, p < .001), and β = -.62, p < .001, respectively). A moderated regression analysis was also conducted to test the assumption that job autonomy moderates the relationship between perceiving a discriminatory work environment and workers’ gender role conflict. The analysis indicated that 79% of the variation in the dependent variable could be explained by the main effects and the interaction effects, F (4, 145) =140.58, p < .05). This interaction effect, although significant, accounted for a minimal incremental effect above and beyond the direct effects of perceived gender discrimination and work autonomy (ΔR2 = .008, F (1, 145) = 5.48, p < .05). Research implications and suggestions for future research are discussed.},
     year = {2019}
    }
    

    Copy | Download

  • TY  - JOUR
    T1  - The Effect of Perceived Discrimination on Gender Role Conflict Among Men Engaged in A-typical Occupations: The Moderating Role of Work Autonomy
    AU  - Olubukola Abimbola Oke
    Y1  - 2019/06/26
    PY  - 2019
    N1  - https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ss.20190803.17
    DO  - 10.11648/j.ss.20190803.17
    T2  - Social Sciences
    JF  - Social Sciences
    JO  - Social Sciences
    SP  - 117
    EP  - 124
    PB  - Science Publishing Group
    SN  - 2326-988X
    UR  - https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ss.20190803.17
    AB  - Empirical research suggests that gendered job-segregation have effects on men in the workplace consequent upon bias evaluations stemming from social norms regarding acceptable gender roles. These biases are capable of inducing workplace stressors that may affect the psychological well being of men engaged in female-dominated occupations. This study investigates the moderating role of work autonomy in the relationship between perceived gender discrimination and gender role conflict for men in atypical occupations. A cross-sectional survey method was used to collect data from a sample of 150 men in the occupations of nursing, librarian, and primary school teaching, and a hierarchical regression test analyzed hypotheses. Regression analysis demonstrated that perceived discrimination and work autonomy were significant predictors of gender role conflict (β = .60, p < .001), and β = -.62, p < .001, respectively). A moderated regression analysis was also conducted to test the assumption that job autonomy moderates the relationship between perceiving a discriminatory work environment and workers’ gender role conflict. The analysis indicated that 79% of the variation in the dependent variable could be explained by the main effects and the interaction effects, F (4, 145) =140.58, p < .05). This interaction effect, although significant, accounted for a minimal incremental effect above and beyond the direct effects of perceived gender discrimination and work autonomy (ΔR2 = .008, F (1, 145) = 5.48, p < .05). Research implications and suggestions for future research are discussed.
    VL  - 8
    IS  - 3
    ER  - 

    Copy | Download

Author Information
  • Department of Behavioural Studies, College of Management & Social Sciences, Redeemer’s University, Oshogbo, Nigeria

  • Sections